Unit 1 Tutorials: Renaissance to Revolution: Art of Italy and Northern Europe

1. Period and Location: Quattrocento Italy—The Genius of the 15th Century

A convergence of astonishing artistic talent, the spread of humanism, and economic prosperity marked a rebirth of classical values in both art and society known as the Renaissance. Because of the power of the Christian church during the Middle Ages, much of the influence of Greek and Roman civilizations was forgotten due to the pagan views of these ancient people. With the start of the Renaissance, a reawakening of Greco-Roman ideas and accomplishments began. This cultural flowering initially found its greatest center in 15th-century Florence, where the powerful Medici family played a pivotal role as influential art patrons and political leaders, nurturing and supporting a host of artists whose works would come to define the era.

2. Renaissance Art

One of the hallmarks of the Renaissance was the groundbreaking approach to artistic representation, as you will see in the following examples of Renaissance art.

2a. Linear Perspective in Painting: Paolo Uccello, Battle of San Romano

Early Renaissance artists sought to achieve greater physical credibility in their works. This was made possible by the new science of linear perspective, pioneered by Filippo Brunelleschi. Brunelleschi's development of linear perspective allowed artists like Paolo Uccello to create a sense of depth and space in their paintings, making their works appear more realistic.

The secular art side of Renaissance painting is found in historic subjects such as Paolo Uccello's Battle of San Romano, which depicts a conflict between Florence and Siena in 1432. Uccello's use of perspective and foreshortening exemplifies the era's advancements in artistic techniques, while the painting itself reflects the Renaissance interest in secular themes and the recording of historical events. Notice how the diagonal lines of the weapons, flags, soldiers’ bodies, and horses direct the viewer’s eyes to the center of the image, resulting in a livelier and more believable battle scene.

terms to know

Linear Perspective

Linear perspective is a process of using lines to create the illusion of space. By incorporating diagonal lines that converge at a vanishing point, artists made a two-dimensional image appear to have more three-dimensional depth. This technique is attributed to architect Filippo Brunelleschi.

Secular Art

Secular art refers to art that is not influenced by religious themes, purposes, or restrictions. Instead, secular art encompasses a wide range of subjects, styles that reflect upon human experiences, historic events, portraiture, and other non-religious topics.

Foreshortening

In foreshortening, parts of an object closer to the viewer are depicted as larger, while parts further away are proportionally smaller. This technique is often used in figure drawing and painting to represent the human body in dynamic poses and from unusual angles, such as viewing a person lying down from their feet or head.

2b. Classical Revivalism in Sculpture: Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Hercules and Antaeus

The Renaissance interest in classical culture naturally also led to the revival of Greco-Roman mythological themes in art. For example, Antonio del Pollaiuolo's table-sized bronze sculpture of Hercules and Antaeus vividly illustrates this trend, depicting a dramatic moment from classical mythology with a renewed focus on anatomical precision and dynamic movement. This work exemplifies the period's fascination with ancient myths and its commitment to reviving and reinterpreting them through the lens of Renaissance artistry.

did you know

Antonio del Pollaiuolo, along with his brother Piero, painted the exact same subject of Hercules and Antaeus in 1460, 15 years before casting the sculpture. During World War II, the painting was taken from the Uffizi Museum in Florence by German soldiers. The painting was later rediscovered in Pasadena, California, and returned to Italy in 1975.

term to know

Anatomical Precision

The artist’s study of the human body, which results in a visual adherence to precise anatomical features like muscles and veins.

3. Renaissance Architecture

In addition to advancements in painting, Renaissance architects looked to revive and reinterpret the classical style. They drew inspiration from the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing symmetry, proportion, and the use of classical orders. This revival of classical architecture can be seen in the works of architects such as Brunelleschi himself, whose design for the dome of Florence Cathedral and the Pazzi Chapel are masterpieces of engineering and a testament to the era's innovative spirit.

In the Pazzi Chapel, Brunelleschi focused on connecting the elements of the building in a proportional way to create visual relationships, as was the custom in the classical past. For example, in the chapel's interior, a cube-shaped ceiling with a dome is adjacent to two symmetrical wings. Both in the interior and exterior, architectural features like Corinthian columns, rounded arches and the central dome reflect the works of ancient Greece and Rome.

Somewhat hidden from the public eye, the Pazzi Chapel is tucked inside the main monastic cloister of the Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, Italy. The chapel's design showcases the classical symmetry, proportion, and geometric harmony that are hallmarks of the Renaissance architectural style.

1. Period and Location: The Progressive Government of Florence

Unlike many other regions in Europe that were under the control of monarchs or dukes, Florence was managed by elected leaders from its merchant guilds, which were trade organizations akin to modern unions. This form of republican governance fostered a sense of independence among the Florentines.

2. Civic Humanism

Civic humanism was a dominant ideology in Florence during the Renaissance. It emphasized the importance of active participation in public life and the pursuit of the common good. This philosophy was inspired by the classical ideals of ancient Rome and Greece and was propagated by influential thinkers such as Leonardo Bruni. Bruni was a pioneering humanist scholar who translated many classical Greek texts into Latin, making them accessible to a wider audience. Bruni advocated active participation in public affairs as a key aspect of virtuous living. Bruni further stressed that art and art patronage was a potent vehicle of civic humanism, as it praises the values of communal responsibility and pride.

term to know

Humanism

Humanism is an ideology that took shape in ancient Greece and was reinvigorated by Renaissance scholars in Italy. This philosophical approach placed human capabilities at the forefront of society. In art, humanism was seen as a focus upon the realistic portrayal of the human form and the use of art as a tool to inspire the betterment of self and society.

2a. Michelangelo and David

Michelangelo Buonarroti, born in 1475 and lived until 1564, is a name synonymous with the Renaissance. Renowned for his prodigious talents, Michelangelo left an indelible mark on the worlds of sculpture, painting, and architecture. Despite his versatile genius, he primarily identified as a sculptor, a sentiment that profoundly influenced his artistic approach.

Michelangelo’s approach to sculpture was that the artist, who, like God, first imagines the creation, then creates it. He also believed that the process should occur naturally and organically, rather than relying on rigid mathematical proportions. This work of art is inspired by the classical Greek sculptures of male athletes, heroes, and nudes, as seen in his contrapposto, a naturalistic human pose with weight shifted to one foot.

David also stands as a symbol of the political ethos of Renaissance Florence. Upon its completion in 1504, it was decided that the 17-foot-tall David would not be placed atop the Florence Cathedral, as originally intended. Instead, a committee that included Leonardo da Vinci recommended its placement in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of Florence's government.

The relocation of David to the civic center imbued the statue with profound political symbolism. David came to be an emblem of the Florentine Republic’s defiance against larger, more powerful adversaries, like the biblical David against Goliath. It symbolized the defense of civil liberties and the citizens’ commitment to protecting their freedom from tyranny and oppression.

did you know

The piece of marble used for David was rumored to have been rejected by another sculptor in Florence. When Michelangelo created David for the top portion of Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral in Florence, he understood that the sculpture would be viewed from the ground up. This in part explains the visual distortion of David’s hand being proportionally larger than it should be. Michelangelo was considering the original viewer’s perspective. Now in the Accademia Gallery, visitors see the sculpture at a closer vantage point.

term to know

Contrapposto

A naturalistic pose in which the human figure places most of the weight on one foot, resting the other foot and creating a slight tilt in the pelvis.

before you start

As we begin to explore the art of the early Cinquecento (the 1500s), or High Renaissance, it is essential to look at some of the important influences on artistic production. Some of these major influences include:

• The fall of Florence as a regional power
• The overall prevalence of warfare
• The Reformation
• Counter-Reformation (Catholic response to the Reformation)

1. Period and Location: Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci is the epitome of a Renaissance man, a figure whose vast expertise spanned numerous disciplines. While he is best remembered for his artistic masterpieces, Leonardo’s interests and talents extended far beyond the realm of art. His prolific inventiveness and keen observations of the natural world are documented in countless journals, showcasing his remarkable intellect and curiosity.

Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452 in Anchiano, Italy. He was the illegitimate son of Ser Piero da Vinci, a notary, and Caterina, a peasant woman. Despite his illegitimacy, which barred him from formal education and certain social privileges, Leonardo’s talents were evident from an early age. His father recognized his potential and arranged for him to apprentice with Andrea del Verrocchio, a prominent artist in Florence.

2. Leonardo da Vinci: A Renaissance Man

Leonardo moved to Milan in 1482. His time in Milan was not just dedicated to art. He was also involved in scientific studies and engineering projects for the Duke of Milan. His work covered a wide range of disciplines, including anatomy, hydraulics, mechanics, and military engineering.

Below is one of Leonardo’s most famous drawings, Vitruvian Man.

did you know

Leonardo’s detailed empirical observations of the world around him originated the idea of scientific illustration. Concepts such as anatomy were substantially advanced by his observations. While he was far ahead of his time, some of his understandings were imperfect.

Leonardo da Vinci’s exhaustive notebooks included the following:

Anatomical Studies: Leonardo conducted detailed anatomical studies, dissecting human bodies and creating precise anatomical drawings, which greatly contributed to the understanding of human physiology.

Engineering Projects: Leonardo designed a variety of machines and engineering marvels, such as military weapons, bridges, and even plans for a flying machine.

term to know

Scientific Illustration

Drawings made with the goal of communicating information regarding the structure and appearance of an object.

2a. The Virgin of the Rocks

Leonardo was a true artistic genius, which makes it even more fascinating that art was just one of his many interests and endeavors. His paintings became starting points for scientific experiments regarding natural phenomena, such as aerial or atmospheric perspective, which is a technique of using color and light to show depth. The subtle play of light and shadow called chiaroscuro is evident in his painting, The Virgin of the Rocks.

Notice the chiaroscuro in this image of The Virgin of the Rocks. See how the figures’ skin tone is illuminated, which contrasts to the shadowy landscape behind them.

The figures above are in a triangular arrangement, and they are united within the composition in their exposure to light. Triangles are frequently used in Italian Renaissance art to create visual stability, as well as reference the Christian idea of the Holy Trinity.

Notice the way the figures gesture to each other. The infant John the Baptist, on the left, prays toward the infant Jesus, who appears to be either pointing at, or more likely blessing, John in return. Some art historians question which child is which because of mysterious visual elements, leading to some controversy surrounding this image.

Consider the angel on the far right as it points in John’s direction. Mary completes this image by resting her hand on John and either reaching toward Jesus or performing a gesture of blessing over Christ. It all takes place within a dark and otherworldly landscape. This is more than just an artistic achievement. It is a true technological achievement as well. Leonardo pushed the early boundaries of what the new medium of oil painting could do.

terms to know

Atmospheric Perspective

This technique uses light and color to create a sense of depth in an image. By making objects in the distance of the artwork appear hazier as well as more gray-blue in color, the artist can add an impression of three-dimensionality.

Chiaroscuro

An important method of shading using gradations of values and strong contrasts of light and dark to create a sense of volume; this method enhances the illusion of three-dimensional form on a two-dimensional plane.

2b. The Last Supper

While Leonardo’s curiosity led to many visual advances in art, not every experiment was a success.

 Let’s take a look at Leonardo’s The Last Supper fresco from 1495 to explain this idea. The painting is located on the walls of a refectory or dining room in Santa Maria delle Grazie convent in Milan.

Leonardo experimented with an oil and tempera combination on dry plaster, as opposed to wet plaster, to try and recreate the effect of oil on wood. Unfortunately, it did not work well. The humidity of Milan’s climate only accelerated the degradation of the painting, which began soon after its completion. A restoration of the project was undertaken, to save the masterpiece and return it to its original form, and was completed in watercolor to distinguish it from the original.

did you know

Interestingly, the restoration, rather than conservation that prevents further damage, was so extensive it’s estimated that only about 20% of what is seen today is actually the original painting.

The composition is essentially symmetric, with the central figure of Christ serving to divide the image into two parts. Notice the blue line here that divides the image into two symmetrical parts:

Just as in The Virgin of the Rocks, Leonardo uses a triangle with Christ to anchor the composition. See the image below, which highlights this triangular area:

The number three, once again symbolic of the Holy Trinity, is integrated throughout the image. Notice the three windows behind Christ and the way the disciples are arranged in four groups of three, evenly distributed on either side of Christ. They are, from left to right, Bartholomew, James, Andrew, Judas (the betrayer), Peter, who becomes the first pope, and John, on the left.

The subject matter is that of the Last Supper immediately after the moment when Christ says that one of the disciples will betray him. Most of the disciples are depicted as fairly animated, talking to one another in a state of surprise or shock, or are concerned that the guilty party may be them.

 Leonardo placed the vanishing point directly above Christ’s head as a way of drawing the viewer’s gaze toward the central figure of Christ.

Now, notice how Judas is depicted somewhat obscured in shadow as he clutches a small bag, possibly his payment for betraying Christ. His head is lower than the others’, and his elbow is on the table. He also spilled salt, which is a superstition associated with bad luck. Jesus is in the center. Next is Thomas, James the Greater, Philip, followed by Matthew, Jude, and Simon.

terms to know

Restoration

Cleaning and repairing a work of art to bring it back to its original state as much as possible.

Conservation

Repairing a work of art to avoid any further damage.

2c. The Mona Lisa

Another iconic Leonardo painting is Mona Lisa, arguably one of the most famous images in the world after its theft in 1911. It’s an interesting painting depicting what is thought to be the wife of a wealthy Florentine, Lisa del Giocondo.

Here is an image of the Mona Lisa:

Mona is a shortened form of Madonna, which means “my lady.” So literally, it is “my lady Lisa.” It exemplifies da Vinci’s skill with atmospheric perspective and sfumato, which is that smoky, hazy quality. It also highlights his mastery of the application of chiaroscuro, and how the face and hands of the Mona Lisa almost appear to glow out of the picture. While it may appear that Lisa does not have eyebrows, the brown pigment Leonardo used has simply faded over time.

did you know

Leonardo never delivered the painting to its supposed portrait sitter, Lisa del Giocondo. When Leonardo moved to France to work for King Francis I, he took the painting with him. This is how a celebrated Italian work ended up in the Louvre Museum in Paris. Some scholars even believe that the Mona Lisa is actually a self-portrait of Leonardo, which explains why he had trouble parting with it.

term to know

Sfumato

A painting technique that involves subtle tones blending into one another without harsh outlines, creating a “smoky” appearance.

1. Period and Location: Michelangelo

Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni, commonly known as Michelangelo, was born on March 6, 1475, in Caprese, Italy. He was a Renaissance artist renowned for his exceptional skill in sculpture, painting, and architecture. Michelangelo's influence on the development of Western art is profound; his ability to blend physical realism with expressive intensity set new standards in both sculpture and painting.

2. Michelangelo’s Life

Michelangelo was born into a family of modest means. His father, Ludovico di Leonardo di Buonarotto di Simoni, was a government administrator, and his mother, Francesca Neri, died when he was 6 years old. At 13, Michelangelo was sent to Florence, where he apprenticed to the painter Domenico Ghirlandaio. This apprenticeship exposed him to the rich artistic heritage of Renaissance Florence.

Michelangelo was known for his intense dedication to his craft. He often worked in isolation and was deeply committed to achieving perfection in his art. During his lifetime he enjoyed considerable fame and recognition. Contemporaries often referred to Michelangelo as “Il Divino” (The Divine) due to his extraordinary talents.

The genius of Michelangelo as a painter is a notable and defining moment of the High Renaissance. While Michelangelo is celebrated for his sculpture, such as David, his contributions to painting are equally significant. Commissioned by Pope Julius II, Michelangelo began painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in 1508, completing the monumental project in 1512.

3. The David

Take another look at this image of Michelangelo’s David. In a previous lesson, you learned about how this sculpture represented Florence. Now, let’s consider additional contextual and stylistic details for this renowned artwork.

The sculpture itself is almost 17 feet tall, and it depicts the biblical hero in the moments leading up to his fight with Goliath. The contrapposto stance suggests David at ease upon first look, but the beautifully rendered details create a sense of tension as well as anticipation for what’s about to happen.

did you know

Michelangelo depicts David immediately before the confrontation. This contrasts with other statues of David, including Donatello’s famous sculpture, which shows David in the moments immediately after the battle.

David’s large hands in this sculpture, one of which holds the stone that kills Goliath, convey power and strength. They also serve as a visual adjustment, like his slightly enlarged head, which compensates for the observer's lower viewpoint.

think about it

This type of visual adjustment and consideration for the vantage point of the observer was also a characteristic of Donatello’s statue of St. Mark in Florence, which is a work of art that Michelangelo would’ve been familiar with.

The sensation of impending action is a hallmark of Michelangelo’s style and is clearly rendered in the details of David’s face. His gaze extends beyond the immediate area and serves to pull in the character of Goliath. While Goliath is beyond the view of the observer, he is well within David’s line of sight.

4. The Sistine Chapel

The Sistine Chapel is part of the Vatican complex in Rome, which is the center of Christendom. The project to paint the interior was commissioned by Pope Julius II about 2 years after the groundbreaking on the new church of St. Peter’s in the Vatican. Michelangelo was selected, and though hesitant at first, he eventually accepted.

The scope of the project was enormous. It presented several challenges, such as the height of the ceiling. This problem, however, was eventually solved by the creation of a scaffolding system by Michelangelo. The brightly colored ceiling was painted by Michelangelo while he stood, neck tilted, on the scaffolding. The idea that Michelangelo painted on his back is a common misconception, which has been disproved by the artist’s own writings.

Notice the almost neon color palette of many of the figures. Because the ceiling was so far from the ground, the artist used vibrant colors to allow the scenes to stand out to the human eye far below.

The biblical scenes painted by Michelangelo depicted narratives detailing such events as:

• The creation of humankind
• The expulsion from the garden of Eden
• The Last Judgment
• Details from the Book of Genesis

did you know

Before starting the difficult technique of fresco painting, artists often made ingenious preparatory drawings called cartoons. First, the outlines of the cartoon were perforated by tiny holes. The image was then held against the surface, and powdered charcoal was tapped through the holes to transfer the image onto the wall. The result was a dotted outline, which served as a guide for the artist as they painted.

terms to know

Buon Fresco

A type of fresco in which the plaster is still wet and the paint bonds with the plaster.

Giornata

The quantity of wet plaster that an artist could paint into in a period of one day before it dried.

Cartoon

A preparatory drawing for a mural that contains a number of small holes, allowing the drawing to be transferred to the wall using powdered charcoal tapped through the holes.

4a. The Creation of Adam

The most famous image for the Sistine Chapel, and one of the most famous paintings from the Renaissance, is the image of The Creation of Adam.

Below is an image of The Creation of Adam.

In this work of art, Michelangelo diverted from the biblical representation and chose a noticeably more mythical depiction of the event. Michelangelo’s touch is unmistakable, and in true Renaissance style, he shows the moment just before the action takes place. This depicts the point in time just before Adam is given life, as God reaches out his finger, nearly touching Adam in order to waken him with the spark of life. Notice how even when painting, Michelangelo adds a sculptural element to his works, emphasizing the lines and contours of the muscled bodies.

4b. The Last Judgment

Decades after finishing the ceiling, Michelangelo returned to the chapel for another massive painting project. Michelangelo’s The Last Judgment, painted between 1536 and 1541, is one of the most significant works of art in the Sistine Chapel. Located on the back altar wall of the chapel, this monumental fresco depicts the second coming of Christ and the final judgment of souls. Imagine confronting this towering image face-on.

Christ is depicted in a dynamic pose, with a powerful gesture that commands attention. His muscular form reflects Michelangelo's background in sculpture and his fascination with the human body. Notice how Christ almost looks like Zeus or Poseidon with his heroic physique. This is a clear deviation from earlier eras of the Italian Renaissance.

The Virgin Mary, positioned next to Christ, turns her gaze downward, embodying mercy and compassion.

Surrounding Christ are saints and martyrs, identifiable by their attributes, such as St. Bartholomew holding his flayed skin (believed to be a self-portrait of Michelangelo) and St. Catherine with her wheel, the symbol of her martyrdom.

Michelangelo's use of foreshortening creates a dramatic sense of depth and movement in The Last Judgment. The vibrant color palette, with contrasting blues, reds, and flesh tones, further enhances the visual power and emotional intensity of the scene.

The Last Judgment marked a departure from the idealized beauty of Michelangelo's earlier Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes, reflecting a more turbulent and expressive style. The fresco influenced subsequent generations of artists, contributing to the development of Mannerism later in the 16th century with its exaggerated forms and emotional vigor. These extreme visual changes can also be seen as the Catholic Church's reaction to the recent start of the Protestant Reformation, triggering a sense of religious fervor in Rome.

did you know

Michelangelo included hundreds of nude figures in The Last Judgment. Several Papal advisors felt this was ill-suited to a chapel of the Pope and demanded the nudity be covered. Michelangelo resisted this suggestion. Following the artist’s death in 1564, one of his students added dry fresco overtop most of the nudes to obscure the so-called indecency.

1. Period and Location: Raphael

Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, known as Raphael, was born on April 6, 1483, in Urbino, Italy, He was a master painter of the Italian High Renaissance, celebrated for his clarity of form, ease of composition, and visual achievement of human grandeur. Raphael, along with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, forms the traditional trinity of great masters of the Italian High Renaissance.

2. The Life of Raphael

Raphael was born into an artistic family. His father, Giovanni Santi, was a court painter to the Duke of Urbino and provided young Raphael with his initial training. After his father's death when Raphael was 11, he continued to develop his skills in the workshop of Pietro Perugino, one of the most successful painters in Italy at the time.

In 1508, Raphael was summoned to Rome by Pope Julius II, who commissioned him to decorate the papal apartments in the Vatican Palace. This commission marked a significant turning point in Raphael's career, allowing him to showcase his genius on a grand scale.

3. The School of Athens

Take a look below at the Raphael’s 1508 fresco commissioned by Pope Julius II, more commonly called The School of Athens.

This work of art is directly across from another fresco, which is not pictured in the apartment, called Theology. It stands as one of the most important works of art of the High Renaissance and exudes the mastery of classical form and composition for which Raphael was known. The whole composition is placed within an ancient architectural setting. It is symmetrically balanced and clearly defined, creating an area of substantial breadth and depth.

The subject of the mural is the Platonic Academy, which is the place in Athens where Plato would teach philosophy to his students. The fresco is a very stable composition, with little movement conveyed.

 Below is a section of the painting from the lower left-hand corner.

This section depicts Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras, shown writing in a book, surrounded by people. The individual sitting alone, resting his head on his hand, is believed to be a portrait of Raphael’s contemporary, the artist Michelangelo. The rest of the left side of the image is composed of other ancient philosophers that flank one of the central figures.

did you know

Michelangelo was painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling while Raphael was working on the papal apartment frescos. Imagine the conversations they might have had when passing each other in the Vatican hallways.

 In the image below, some of the other philosophers flank the central figure of Plato.

In the above image, Plato, shown in red, holds one of his books and gestures towards the heavens and the mysteries of the universe, which he and other metaphysical philosophers contemplated. The other figure, in blue, is Aristotle. On his side of the image are the philosophers and scientists concerned with understanding nature. Plato and Aristotle were positioned at a vanishing point of the fresco, demonstrating Raphael’s interest in linear perspective and balanced composition.

 The upper right-hand portion of the image, shown below, depicts the astronomers Zoroaster and Ptolemy, holding globes.

Finally, the artist Raphael is shown, and just below him are students surrounding the famous Greek mathematician, Euclid. Euclid is best remembered for his contributions to our understanding of geometry.

term to know

The Platonic Academy

Founded by Plato in 387 BCE in Athens, it promoted the philosophical systems of Plato, including the notions of form and existence of abstract objects.

1. Period and Location: Sixteenth-Century Architecture

This lesson focuses on the architecture of the 16th century in the cities of Rome and Vicenza (outside Venice) in Italy.

2. Bramante and the Tempietto

Donato Bramante (1444–1514) was a visionary architect whose work left an indelible mark on Renaissance Architecture. Among his most notable works are the initial designs for St. Peter's Basilica and the Tempietto, or Little Temple, in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio in Rome.

Below is a woodcut of the Tempietto created later by Andrea Palladio.

The Tempietto marks the traditional location of Saint Peter’s crucifixion. As the name suggests, it’s a small building that functions more as a sculpture than architecture. It’s inspired by the design of smaller, circular Greek shrines and round Roman temples like the Temple of Vesta and the Pantheon. This piece of architecture incorporates the elements seen in larger monumental structures of the time. This is done, however, in a condensed version that still manages to be fresh and original.

Although classically inspired, the execution is stylistically Renaissance. This is evident in the combination of well-proportioned architectural elements that wouldn’t have been used in antiquity, such as the drum and balustrade combination.

Here is a closeup of the colonnade:

3. Saint Peter’s Basilica’s Design

Bramante’s talent landed him the opportunity to design the replacement for the older Early Christian basilica-style church of Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

Below is an image of these plans.

Bramante’s original design was for a central-plan church, like a Greek cross, with a hemispherical dome. Upon Bramante’s death, the architectural responsibilities were passed to Michelangelo.

Michelangelo had firmly established his reputation as a master architect earlier, completely redesigning the Piazza Del Campidoglio in Rome, also known as Capitoline Hill, beginning in 1536.

His design is shown here:

Michelangelo reworked the piazza to face toward St. Peter’s Basilica rather than the previous direction facing the ruins of the Roman forum.

Michelangelo was so impressed with Bramante’s work that he decided to expand upon Bramante’s original designs for St. Peter’s. Michelangelo maintained the central-plan church style with some adjustments. Most notably, he changed the overall design of the dome from hemispherical to ogival, like the magnificent dome of the Florence Cathedral that was designed by Brunelleschi in the previous century.

term to know

Central-Plan Church

Basic church architecture that designs a central space that is surrounded by smaller symmetrical areas.

4. Palladio and the Villa La Rotonda

In the Venetian Republic, near Vicenza, the artist Andrea Palladio was busy building a major career as an artist that would eventually spread his influence outside of Italy to areas as far away as England and the United States. He was well known for his work on villas for wealthy citizens of the bustling Venetian economy. Palladio's works were inspired by the principles of ancient Roman architecture, and he meticulously studied the ruins of Rome to inform his designs.

His most famous villa, La Rotonda, stands as one of his most influential designs.

It was built on a hilltop with a central-plan design that featured four porches inspired by Roman temple porticos, such as that of the Pantheon. Each had a different beautiful view, or belvedere of the surrounding countryside, but the architectural elements on each porch were identical.

did you know

The influence of the Pantheon is very apparent in the design of this villa. From every entrance, the building strongly resembles the overall look of the older structure. However, while the influence was there, it is by no means a copy of the Pantheon.

Palladio’s dome, for example, complements the overall design rather than dominating it and is topped with a heavy lantern, in the style of Florence Cathedral and St. Peter’s Basilica, versus the open oculus of the Pantheon. The villa also serves a secular function, rather than a religious one, as was the case with many earlier domed structures.

Palladio's influence extended far beyond Italy, largely through his architectural treatise, I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (The Four Books of Architecture), published in 1570. This work systematically presented his architectural theories, designs, and practical advice, making it widely accessible to architects and builders. The treatise played a crucial role in spreading Palladian architecture, a style based on his principles, across Europe and later to the United States in Thomas Jefferson’s plantation at Monticello in Virginia.

terms to know

Belvedere

A work of architecture that focuses on a beautiful scenic view and is usually built from a high position in the landscape.

Palladian Architecture

A style of architecture based on the writings and designs of Andrea Palladio, which is common in England and the United States.

1. Period and Location: Venetian Painting

This lesson will cover the years 1520 to 1538 in Venice, Italy. Venetian painters, such as Titian, used color to define the forms of their paintings.

2. Titian

Venice's position on the northeastern coast of Italy made it an ideal hub for maritime trade. The city's extensive network of canals and access to the Adriatic Sea allowed for the easy movement of goods and people. This advantageous location turned Venice into a major trading destination and one of the most powerful naval forces of the time.

Venice's political structure was unique and highly complex. It was an oligarchic republic, governed by a combination of aristocratic families and a series of councils with an elected head of state known as a doge.

The wealth generated from trade and a stable political environment allowed Venice to become a center of art, culture, and innovation during the Renaissance.

Titian is perhaps the most famous Venetian painter, known for his bold use of color and innovative techniques. His painting, the Venus of Urbino, showcases his ability to create vivid, lifelike images with a rich palette. Titian's layering of color and glazes adds depth and luminosity.

Titian's artwork is often categorized into one of three types:

• Portraits
• Religious
• Mythological

3. The Meeting of Bacchus and Ariadne

Below is an example of a painting by Titian’s that is mythological. This painting is entitled The Meeting of Bacchus and Ariadne from 1520–1523. It was inspired by an ancient Roman poem by Ovid.

Notice how color is used to define the figures. Venetian painters differed from their Florentine counterparts in how they used color to define forms and create a sense of luminosity. In contrast, Florentine partners emphasized line, contour, and contrast of light and shadow to define form.

think about it

Some art historians argue that the Venetian painters and their use of bright colors creates a more engaging composition. Take a look again at the artwork above. Do you agree?

A sense of vibrancy exists due to the color and playfulness of the subject matter. In the above scene, Bacchus arrives on a leopard-drawn chariot. He appears to leap out of the chariot towards the figure of Ariadne in the above painting. Notice how Titian uses color to create the extremely convincing luminous sheen of Bacchus’s robe. It draws your attention to the central character. The painting is full of playful imagery, such as the tiny fawn in the foreground and the advancing entourage behind Bacchus.

Titian includes a figure of a bearded man entwined in snakes, which you can see in the foreground right behind the fawn. This is a nod to the central figure of a statue recently rediscovered at that time. Originating in Hellenistic Greece, it is titled Laocoön and His Sons. It is shown below.

The Meeting of Bacchus and Ariadne remains one of the highlights of Titian's career and is a testament to his ability to infuse mythological subjects with life and energy, making them accessible and engaging to viewers across the centuries. The painting continues to be celebrated for its vivid portrayal of a timeless mythological tale.

4. Venus of Urbino

This next painting, later titled Venus of Urbino, has come to define the category of the reclining nude female.

Venus of Urbino was a commission from the eventual Duke of Urbino for his own private enjoyment. Notice that her attendants are searching for clothing in the background. The seductive Venus, partially concealed by a velvet curtain, makes eye contact with the viewer. Titian’s use of deep reds and ivories helps to enhance the impression of a pinkish hue emanating from her skin.

The direct gaze of Venus towards the viewer and her languid pose is an invitation to contemplate her beauty, blending sensuality with an idealized form.

This painting was inspired by an earlier painting of a sleeping Venus (shown below) by the Venetian painter, Giorgione. Notice how Titian changes the location of his Venus and opens her eyes, adding to the sensuality of the painting.

The Venus of Urbino has had a lasting impact on the depiction of the female nude in Western art. It set a standard for the reclining nude, influencing countless artists, including Édouard Manet, whose Olympia (1863) directly references Titian’s work.

term to know

Reclining Nude

A format of painting that features the female body in the nude, often in the horizontal, landscape orientation. These figures have been interpreted by art historians as objects of “the male gaze,” as they are generally presented being submissive.

1. Period and Location: Mannerism

Mannerism was a late-Renaissance style that developed in 16th-century Italy and is characterized by elongated forms, complex perspectives, emotionally charged colors, and unnatural gestures and poses of figures.

The artwork that you will be looking at today dates from between 1525 and 1588. These works of art come from Italy and the city of Toledo in Spain.

2. Stylistic Characteristics of Mannerism

Mannerism is considered a response to the Renaissance style that dominated Italy during this period. Mannerism is characterized by the following:

1. Complex Perspectives: Mannerist compositions frequently displayed unusual spatial arrangements and disorienting perspectives. This complexity added a sense of dynamism and tension to the artwork, challenging the viewer's perception.
2. Elongated Forms: One of the most recognizable features of Mannerism is the elongation of figures. Mannerist artists exaggerated the proportions of the human body, creating elongated necks, limbs, and torsos. This stylization was intended to convey elegance and grace.
3. Unnatural Gestures and Poses: Figures in Mannerist paintings and sculptures often appear contorted or in serpentine poses. These dramatic and sometimes awkward positions were used to create a sense of movement and emotional intensity, breaking away from the poised and balanced poses typical of earlier Renaissance works.
4. Emotionally Charged Colors: Color played a significant role in Mannerist art, with artists often using emotionally charged and unconventional color palettes. Mannerist artists favored bold, vibrant, and sometimes clashing hues. This use of color heightened the emotional intensity of their works, contributing to the overall sense of drama and tension.

While the Renaissance artists—in their efforts to make paintings as realistic as possible—attempted to conceal the construction of the artwork, Mannerists embraced it, and in a sense, created a characterization of the Renaissance and Venetian styles.

Some of these visual changes can be attributed to the religious context of this era. With the Protestant Reformation altering life in much of Europe, Catholic countries like Italy and Spain often created art that reflected the religious instabilities of the day.

term to know

Mannerism

A style during the 16th-century Italian High Renaissance characterized by systems of complex perspectives, elongated forms, and unnatural gestures and poses of figures with emotionally charged colors.

3. Mannerist Painters and Their Artwork

There are several Mannerist artists that we will explore for their rich contributions to art.

3a. Pontormo

This first artist, known as Jacopo da Pontormo, was a Mannerist painter who originated from the region of Florence. Here is his self-portrait:

One of Pontormo’s most important paintings is that of the descent, shown below. Descent From the Cross is also known as The Entombment of Christ, as it has remained unclear which scene is being depicted, given that Pontormo opted not to include any objects in his painting.

The first thing you notice is the use of unique, almost neon colors. Pontormo chose a palette of mostly pastels with pink and blue dominating the image. The empty space in the middle, detailed below, is symbolic of grief and is a departure from other Renaissance artists who tended to concentrate their images near the center of the composition.

Notice how the figures are all blond or reddish-haired (below, left) and how Christ is depicted without a mustache (below, right), which is atypical for most depictions of Christ during this period. It’s hard to say for certain whether these attributes were intentional or projections of some of the artist’s own physical traits, but the comparison at least is interesting.

The figures are all shown with varying degrees of concern on their faces, as you can see in the close-up below on the left. On the right, you can see Mary, who is understandably the most overcome by grief.

The elongation of forms and uncomfortable or, in some instances, impossible bodily contortions are present as well and are examples of formal dissonance, meaning what the viewer expects to see conflicts with what is depicted.

think about it

Look closely at this image. You can see Mary as well as what is believed to be a self-portrait of Pontormo. Compare the image below to the actual self-portrait of the artist shown previously. A striking resemblance, don’t you think?

term to know

Formal Dissonance

A state of tension that is created when the experience of what is expected to be seen and what is actually seen are in discrepancy.

3b. Parmigianino

The man born Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola became the Mannerist painter known by his nickname, “Parmigianino,” or “little one from Parma.” As you may have guessed, he worked out of Parma, Italy, among other places. Like Raphael, who died 20 years prior, Parmigianino had a relatively short life and coincidentally also died at the age of 37. His self-portrait is shown below. Notice the typically Mannerist distortion of this hand because of the convex mirror.

His best-known work of art is the Madonna and Child with Angels, more familiarly known as the Madonna With the Long Neck. The exaggerated form of the Virgin Mary emphasizes the delicacy of her feminine features, such as her slender hands, almost swan-like neck, and long legs covered in mounds of beautifully rendered clothing.

There’s an unsettling sensation that is generated, though, upon closer inspection. Notice the figure in the background with the scroll. He’s included to give some impression of depth to the image and a reference point for the receding background, but his proportions aren’t quite right. Moreover, he appears smaller than he should be. The incomplete capital and background enhance the sensation of formal dissonance—as per Renaissance artwork, a fully rendered background is anticipated, but you don’t get one.

The Virgin Mary is also severely distorted, coming in at nearly nine heads tall, when the natural measure is usually between six and seven. She’s gigantic!

Lastly, the infant Jesus would certainly set the record for the longest baby ever. He measures five heads—almost twice the measurement of a typical child at this age, which again reinforces this feeling of formal dissonance. While you might anticipate an intimate scene between mother and child, you are instead treated to a somewhat unnerving scene between an unnatural-looking mother and a gigantic baby.

3c. Bronzino

Agnolo di Cosimo, who generally went by the name Agnolo Bronzino, was a pupil of Pontormo. Here is an image of one of his portraits, although note it is not of the artist himself.

The painting below was commissioned by Cosimo I de’ Medici, ruler of Florence, for the King of France. It is entitled Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time and is a somewhat incestuous image centered around the image of Venus being fondled by her child Cupid. In another example of formal dissonance, the childlike head and adultlike body of Cupid don’t seem to match—in fact, the head of Cupid appears to be almost detached from his lower body.

Folly, the little ruddy-looking boy who looks like he’s poised to hit Venus in the back of the head with rose petals, is beautifully and masterfully painted. It’s an example of just how refined the area of oil painting is becoming during this period. Notice how realistic his curls look.

Below, from left to right, an allegory of Time appears to be pulling back the curtain, revealing the entire scene to the viewer, and the personification of Fury can be seen in the shadows behind Cupid. Lastly, the masks are symbolic of deceit. It’s difficult to interpret the overall meaning behind the painting, but it is a wonderful example of Bronzino’s application of Mannerist principles.

3d. El Greco

This last artist, born Doménikos Theotokópoulos but known as El Greco, or “the Greek,” was born on Crete—hence his name—but he spent considerable time in Italy before moving to Toledo, Spain, for the remainder of his life.

El Greco is known for his blending of Byzantine and Mannerist styles with some Spanish influence, a style uniquely his own. He is also known for the strong emotionalism portrayed through his depictions of forms and use of color. Here is a presumed self-portrait of El Greco (though it is not titled as such):

This painting, called The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, is bursting with figures crowded into the scene in which the terrestrial and heavenly realms are depicted as almost existing on the same plane. Saints Stephan and Augustine have descended from heaven to lower the count’s body into his grave.

The earthly world is painted rather realistically, while the elongated figures in heaven are depicted among swirling forms and wispy clouds.

did you know

The young boy on the left of the painting who points to the count was El Greco’s son, Jorge Manuel. The figure behind the count, making eye contact with the viewers, is believed to be El Greco himself. These real figures visually bridge Earth and the heavens.

The burial scene is full of black-clad figures in traditional (for the time) Spanish aristocratic dress. A few of them look upwards in acknowledgment of the heavenly realm, prepared to welcome the soul of the count, who is being lifted upwards by the angel in the center.

hint

The juxtaposition of the Realistic with the Mannerist is a unique quality of El Greco’s and would serve as an influence and transition to the emotionally charged imagery and dynamism of the later Baroque period.

1. Period and Location: Women Artists and Patrons of the Renaissance

The art and artists in this lesson are from the Renaissance period, a time of significant cultural, artistic, and intellectual growth in Europe, spanning roughly from the 14th to the 17th century. This era saw the emergence of many renowned artists and patrons who played crucial roles in shaping the art and culture of their time. Our focus will be on the contributions of prominent women artists and art patrons during the Renaissance, highlighting their often overlooked yet significant impact on the arts.

2. Women of the Renaissance

Renaissance art calls to mind some of the greatest names in art history—Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo, and the patronage of Lorenzo di Medici. Yet many women, famous in their own time, were among these great visionaries.

During the Renaissance, women artists faced numerous challenges that hindered their ability to pursue and succeed in artistic careers. These challenges included the societal expectations of the role of women, a lack of patrons, and limited access to formal training and professional guilds.

Though for centuries, women artists of the Renaissance were largely overlooked in the annals of art history, contemporary scholarship has begun a long overdue reappraisal and rediscovery of their lives and works.

2a. Plautilla Nelli’s The Last Supper

Plautilla Nelli (1524–1588) was a nun of the Dominican order at the convent of St. Catherine of Siena in Florence. A pioneering artist of the Renaissance era, Nelli is notable for being the first known woman Renaissance painter of Florence. Unlike her male contemporaries, who had access to formal training and the ability to study human anatomy through live models, Nelli was largely self-taught. Forbidden from studying male nudes, which were essential for mastering human anatomy, she had to find alternative ways to develop her skills. Nelli’s paintings often feature delicate lines and a strong sense of spirituality.

One of her most famous works, The Last Supper (1568), is a monumental painting that reflects her deep religious devotion and artistic talent. Despite the challenges posed by the lack of formal training and gender restrictions, Nelli's work has endured, and she is now celebrated as a trailblazer for women in the arts.

think about it

Compare Nelli’s The Last Supper to Leonardo’s painting of the same scene from 1495–1498. Consider the differences of materials, style, and subject. How do the two artists present the narrative in different ways? What does each artist do more successfully than the other? Keep in mind too that whereas Nelli was a pious nun, Leonardo is widely regarded to be an atheist. Does this affect their respective methods of narrating this key Biblical moment?

2b. Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba Anguissola (1535–1625) was a pioneering artist whose success during the Renaissance set a precedent for future generations of women artists. Born into a noble Milanese family, Anguissola received considerable support from her family in her pursuit of art—a rare opportunity for women of her time. This familial encouragement enabled her to receive formal training, which was uncommon for women.

As a teenager, Anguissola apprenticed with the renowned painter Bernardino Campi for 3 years. Under his tutelage, she developed her skills and gained a strong foundation in the techniques of Renaissance art. Anguissola's noble status also facilitated her acquaintance with Michelangelo Buonarotti. The two artists exchanged drawings, through which Michelangelo offered constructive criticism and mentorship.

One of her most famous works, The Game of Chess (1555), depicts her sisters engaged in a game of chess, capturing not only their likenesses but also their personalities and the dynamic interaction between them.

Anguissola’s reputation as a painter quickly spread, leading to an invitation to join the court of King Philip II of Spain in 1559. During her 14-year tenure there, she completed numerous official portraits. Unfortunately, none of her works from this period survived due to a devastating palace fire in the 18th century.

think about it

Anguissola, despite having more resources available than many other women of her day, still was not able to use male models in her studies. Why do you suppose she selected the subjects of The Game of Chess?
Anguissola was also known for painting at least 12 self-portraits, which was highly unusual for artists in the Renaissance. What might motivate a female artist to focus on reproducing her own image?

3. Women Patrons of the Renaissance

Some of the most influential patrons of art during the Renaissance were women. Using exceptional talents, wealth, and a keen eye for art, these patrons significantly influenced and defined the aesthetics of their time.

3a. Isabella d’Este

Isabella d'Este (1474–1539) was a significant figure in the Italian Renaissance, renowned for her patronage of the arts and her influence on culture and politics. As the Marchioness of Mantua, she used her position to foster the development of the arts and amassed one of the most impressive art collections of her time.

Isabella d'Este was a discerning patron who commissioned works from many leading artists of the Renaissance. Her court became a hub for artists such as:

• Leonardo da Vinci: She commissioned him for a portrait, which, though it was not completed, indicates her high status and the reverence artists had for her.
• Titian: He painted several works for Isabella, including portraits and mythological scenes.
• Raphael: Though he did not work for her directly, Isabella sought his paintings, reflecting her refined artistic taste.

Isabella d'Este's discerning eye and support for artists helped shape the course of Renaissance art. Her life and work continue to be studied as an exemplar of the power and influence wielded by women in the arts during the Renaissance.

3b. Roxelana (Later Known as Hürrem): Art Patron of the Ottoman Empire

Roxelana, whose name means “the maiden from Ruthenia” (a region in present-day Ukraine), rose from the status of a sex slave in Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent’s harem to become his first “most preferred” wife. In the harem, Roxelana learned Turkish, culture, diplomacy, and the principles of Islam. Her charm and wit earned her a new name, Hürrem, meaning “the joyful one.” So captivated was the Sultan by Roxelana that he deviated from tradition, fathering multiple children with her. This unusual favor culminated in marriage, a union that ultimately granted Roxelana her freedom.

One of Roxelana’s most significant accomplishments was the Haseki Sultan Complex in Istanbul, designed by the renowned architect Mimar Sinan. This stone-and-brick complex featured a mosque, a school, a soup kitchen, and a hospital, serving as a vital community center.

Roxelana's philanthropic efforts extended beyond Istanbul. She funded various buildings and public resources in cities such as Mecca and Jerusalem, demonstrating her commitment to charitable works and urban development across the Ottoman Empire. Her contributions went beyond architecture; she played a crucial role as a stateswoman, influencing political decisions during her lifetime. Her efforts in both governance and art patronage make Roxelana a prominent figure in Ottoman history.

1. Period and Location: Sixteenth-Century Northern Renaissance Painting

The Northern Renaissance paintings of the 16th century were an amalgam of Northern-style symbolism, detail, and textural interests, with the influence of the Italian Renaissance elements of accurate perspective and logical compositions. Northern Renaissance artists were often known for their inclusion of many small symbolic details. The interpretation and study of those symbols is called iconography.

The artworks you will be looking at today date from between 1514 and 1565.

The artists whose work you’ll be examining are from Northern Europe, originating from places such as Bree and Antwerp in modern-day Belgium, and Augsburg in modern-day Germany, shown below. Note that the purple area delineates the Holy Roman Empire.

terms to know

Northern Renaissance

An age of artistic and cultural discovery and Christian humanism that took place in Germany, the Netherlands, and France.

Holy Roman Empire

Consisting of mostly Germany and part of Italy but comprised of diverse ethnicities, this area was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor from 962 to 1806. Its decline and eventual collapse coincided with the decline of the pope and the power of the emperor.

Iconography

The study of symbols in an artwork and the viewer’s attempt to understand what those symbols meant at the time of their creation.

2. Sixteenth-Century Northern Renaissance Painting: Influences and Stylistic Characteristics

It’s important to remember that art is often influenced by the political climate of the time—as well as the literal climate of the time—as much as it is by the social trajectory.

The 16th century was a dynamic time in Northern Europe. The Protestant Reformation was beginning, thanks to a rebellious monk named Martin Luther. The artistic and sociopolitical climate of Northern Europe was being influenced by several major events:

• Colder Climate: The 16th century experienced a period known as the Little Ice Age, which brought cooler temperatures across Europe.
• Shift in Painting Media: Due to the colder climate, fresco painting, which requires specific temperature and humidity conditions, became less practical. Artists turned to panel painting, which was more adaptable to the changing environment.
• Northern European Art: Unlike Italy, Northern Europe had fewer classical examples from antiquity to draw upon. This led to the development of a distinct artistic style that relied more on Gothic traditions and local cultural elements.
• Innovation and Detail: Northern artists focused on meticulous detail, naturalism, and innovative techniques in oil painting. This can be seen as a continuation of the traditional Northern interest in illuminated books and stained glass windows with many small, symbolic details.
• Expansion of Major Powers: The 16th century saw the expansion of France, Germany, and Spain. These growing empires fostered a sense of national identity and cultural pride, which was reflected in the arts.
• Breakup of the Burgundian Netherlands: The political fragmentation of the Burgundian Netherlands led to economic and cultural shifts, influencing artistic production in the region. Cities like Antwerp became significant cultural centers.

3. Sixteenth-Century Northern Renaissance Painters and Their Artwork

There are several painters who were key figures in 16-century Northern Renaissance painting. We’ll explore three specific artists: Quentin Massys, Hans Holbein, and Pieter Brueghel.

3a. Quentin Massys

The artist Quentin Massys, shown in the image below, is believed to have begun his career as a blacksmith in his hometown of Leuven before taking up painting and moving to Antwerp, Flanders (modern-day Belgium), where he remained for the rest of his life until his death in 1529.

Massys’s painting of The Money Changer and His Wife was certainly inspired by an earlier work by the Flemish painter Petrus Christus of a goldsmith in his shop, as well as the increased prosperity that was seen in the Netherlands and Flanders during this time.

In a typical Northern Renaissance fashion, this painting exemplifies a form of genre painting where the subject matter depicts a scene from everyday life. The man is carefully counting and weighing coins, while his wife flips through a book of hours (a small book of devotional literature and scripture).

think about it

What do you think is the purpose of the painting? Well, the picture is filled with details that aren’t immediately noticeable, such as the couple talking over the left shoulder of the wife (below, left) and the woman reading a book in front of a window, through which you see a church steeple, all reflected in a convex mirror on the desk (below, right).

It’s in this mirror reflection that you may find the most important clue regarding the painting’s meaning. The convex mirror is symbolic of the all-seeing eye of God. The church steeple in the background is an indication of the subject matter contained in the book that the woman seated near the window is reading so intently. The overall theme suggests the daily struggle of remaining pious in a secular world.

term to know

Genre Painting

A painting that features everyday people doing everyday activities.

3b. Hans Holbein the Younger

Hans Holbein the Younger—distinguished from Hans Holbein the Elder—originated from the town of Augsburg in the Holy Roman Empire, in what today is Germany. He was a very accomplished painter, having served the family of Anne Boleyn, and as the court painter for Anne Boleyn’s husband, Henry VIII in England. Here is his self-portrait:

While employed in England, Holbein created his most famous painting, commonly known as The French Ambassadors. Again, in typical Northern Renaissance style, the painting is full of symbolism. The influence, however, of the Italian Renaissance is also evident in the careful application of perspective and the logical order of composition. The man on the left is Jean de Dinteville, the French ambassador to England, and the man on his right is his friend, Georges de Selve, a bishop and ambassador to the Catholic Holy See. Notice the differences in the secular figure on the left versus the clergyman on the right.

The two men are 28 and 24, respectively, as evident in embossing on the dagger in Dinteville’s right hand, as well as the writing on the Bible underneath de Selve’s right arm. The fabrics are richly textured and realistically rendered, which is a hallmark of the Northern style of painting. Objects in the painting are either humanist or religious in their symbolism. From the celestial globe to an earthly one, from hymnals to a lute with broken strings, each item underscores the roles of the two men. By studying the meaning of these symbols, we can add a level of iconographical analysis to this work and enhance its meaning. The French Ambassadors is not a simple portrait, but a complexly layered statement of the artist’s capabilities.

did you know

Notice anything bizarre between the feet of the two figures? The distorted image you see is actually a skull. Using a process called anamorphosis to create an anamorphic image, the skull is stretched in such a way that in order to view it correctly, the observer must stand to the side. Some art historians believe this was due to the artwork’s position on a staircase, as it was meant to be seen coming up the stairs. Others speculate that Holbein was demonstrating his talents to the English court. Either way, the skull is a humbling addition and likely a reminder of human mortality, an example of memento mori.

term to know

Anamorphic Image

An image that appears distorted unless it is viewed from a certain angle or using a device, such as a mirror.

3c. Pieter Brueghel the Elder

One of the most well-known genre painters in Northern Europe was Pieter Brueghel the Elder, shown below in his self-portrait. Originating from Bree in modern-day Belgium, he began his career by imitating the style and subject matter of one of his greatest influences, the artist Hieronymus Bosch.

He traveled to Italy during his lifetime and was particularly influenced by the landscape of the Italian countryside. He incorporated some of the Italian geography into his landscape paintings of Flanders, as is evident in this painting entitled Hunters in the Snow.

Now, although rolling hills exist in Flanders, mountains do not. This is a depiction of a rather uneventful genre scene—the return of hunters. Brueghel generates interest, however, in the scene in the way he places his figures. The landscape is comprised of foreground and background only. There’s no middle ground, which serves to create a sensation of immediate expansion into the surrounding landscape. It’s a vantage point unique to the observer and an engaging juxtaposition of the daily routine against the backdrop of an expansive, beautifully detailed, Flemish landscape.

think about it

How is this genre image of everyday Flemish life different from works being made in Italy around the same time? Consider the contemporary era of Mannerism which was covered in a previous lesson. How do the subjects, style, and materials differ in Northern Europe and why is this?

term to know

Landscape Painting

An artwork that uses scenes from nature, such as mountains, trees, lakes, and rivers.

1. Period and Location: The Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was a major movement within Christianity that resulted in a schism within the Catholic Church based on ideological differences. The events and artwork that you will be learning about today span from 1512 to 1551. Geographically, this lesson focuses on Wittenberge, Germany.

2. The Protestant Reformation: A Brief History

Although 1517 traditionally marks the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, it was an event many years in the making. Martin Luther was a devout Augustinian monk, but the Catholic Church’s monetary sale of indulgences compelled him to take action. Indulgences were being sold by the Catholic Church as a way for believers to buy their way out of sin. Martin Luther’s belief was that the justification of faith alone was enough to warrant God’s forgiveness of sins. The selling of indulgences was looked at by Luther as a way for the Catholic Church to essentially profit from the salvation of its people.

Luther wrote a response to the Church’s action in a writing called Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences, more commonly known as the 95 Theses, and nailed it to the door of the local All Saints’ Church. This action is widely considered to be the impetus for the Protestant Reformation.

3. Christianity: A Brief History

The Christian movement was monumental and resulted in the eventual schism of the Western Catholic Church into the Catholic, or traditional, Church—which eventually came to be called the Roman Catholic Church—and the reformed church, or Protestant Church.

If you look at the “family tree” of Christianity, below, it begins with Judaism and then moves into Christianity after Christ. Christianity was essentially an offshoot of Judaism. There occurred what is called the Great Schism, which was the church essentially breaking into two groups: the Western or Catholic or Latin Church, based in Rome, and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

After Martin Luther and the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church was again essentially broken into two groups: Roman Catholic and Protestant. The Protestant sect was further broken into other areas as they emerged, based on different variations of the basic tenets of the reformed church: Lutheranism, Presbyterianism, the Methodist Church, and the Calvinist Church—these are all variants of Protestantism.

While this isn’t the definitive family tree of Christianity, it at least provides a basic idea of how different religions, or different churches, differ from each other.

4. Art of the Roman Catholic North: Matthias Grünewald

Matthias Grünewald, an artist known for painting and drawing, originated from the Holy Roman Empire, or what is now modern-day Germany. Here is his self-portrait:

The Isenheim Altarpiece, created by Grünewald between 1512 and 1516, is one of the most significant works of Northern Renaissance art. This complex and multi-paneled altarpiece was originally commissioned for the Monastery of St. Anthony in Isenheim, which specialized in hospital work, particularly the treatment of skin diseases such as ergotism. The work has since been relocated to the Unterlinden Museum in Colmar, France, where all the panels may be seen simultaneously.

The central figure of the emaciated Christ on the cross emphasizes the agony and suffering of his death. His body shows signs of decay, with greenish hues suggesting the beginning stages of decomposition. The rigid fingers indicate rigor mortis, enhancing the altar’s theme of physical trauma.

Dressed in white, the Virgin Mary is depicted in a state of collapse, supported by Saint John the Evangelist. Her pallor and expression of grief convey the depth of her sorrow. Positioned on her knees at the foot of the cross, Mary Magdalene is shown with clasped hands, expressing profound anguish. On the right, Saint John the Baptist is included in a symbolic role, pointing to the sacrificial lamb and holding a scroll with a prophecy about Jesus’s resurrection. This anachronistic inclusion underscores the theological significance of Christ's death and resurrection. Overall, the altarpiece is intended to comfort those coming to the end of their lives from the deadly disease of ergotism.

did you know

Different sections of this altarpiece were open at different times of the church calendar. The second position below contrasts greatly with the closed version above. Whereas the closed scene focuses on sickness and death, the second set of panels are vibrantly colored celebrations of the Resurrection and new life. In the image of the crucifixion, Christ’s body is wrought with suffering, but in the next panels of the Resurrection, his skin is clear, and his body appears healed.

term to know

Holy Roman Empire

Consisting of mostly Germany and part of Italy but comprised of diverse ethnicities, this area was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor from 962 to 1806. Its decline and eventual collapse coincided with the decline of the pope and the power of the emperor.

5. Art of the Protestant North: Lucas Cranach

The painter Lucas Cranach’s professional name is derived from his birthplace of Kronach in modern-day Germany. Cranach, shown below in his self-portrait, was a very close friend of Martin Luther’s, and his work is closely associated with the Reformation.

His painting of the Allegory of Law and Grace was completed in 1530, well after the initial onset of the Protestant Reformation in 1517. It is the first example of artwork post-Reformation, except the painting shown below, the portrait of Martin Luther painted by Cranach.

The Allegory of Law and Grace, shown below, is a pictorial representation of the different ideologies between the churches regarding salvation.

On the left is the traditional view based on the Old Testament law of being judged based on good works. It depicts a person who apparently attempted to live a good life being judged and damned by Christ—shown on a cloud in the sky—and subsequently chased by a demon skeleton into what one can assume to be the fiery chasm of hell. On the right is the Protestant view of an individual being saved by Christ’s sacrifice on the cross, or by the grace of God.

hint

Cranach’s work of art would not have been forbidden or discouraged by the Protestant Reformation. In fact, quite the opposite. It would have been viewed as a visual ideological statement comparing Protestantism with Catholicism, and a valuable tool for the conversion of large numbers of people.

6. Calvinism and the Art of the Northern Renaissance

A French theologian and reformer, John Calvin established a rigorous branch of Protestantism that emphasized the sovereignty of God, predestination, and a disciplined, pious lifestyle. His ideas quickly spread throughout Northern Europe.

Calvinism was known for its iconoclastic tendencies, opposing the veneration of religious images and advocating for their removal from churches. This led to the destruction of many religious artworks during the 16th century, particularly in Calvinist regions.

Genre paintings, depictions of everyday life, were popular in Calvinist areas. Artists like Pieter Aertsen painted scenes of domestic life, taverns, and village festivities. These works often included moral lessons or commentary on human behavior, subtly aligning with Calvinist principles of modesty, hard work, and moral integrity.

6a. Pieter Aertsen

Pieter Aertsen was a painter from Amsterdam. He grew up and worked at a time in which the Reformation was taking form. One of his genre paintings is shown below.

Calvinism had a strong influence on the Aertsen painting The Butcher's Stall, or more familiarly, Meat Still Life. The painting appears to be a typical genre painting from a Northern Renaissance painter. Religious imagery and symbolism, however, can be seen if you look carefully.

Aertsen displays a wealth of meat and food items in the foreground, but if one looks carefully, one can see, in the very back, Joseph on foot leading a donkey carrying Mary, who is shown donating to the poor. In the foreground, fish, pretzels, and wine—all associated with the miracles of Jesus and The Last Supper—are juxtaposed with oysters, meats, and other foods considered gluttonous or lustful.

hint

Aertsen’s Meat Still Life is similar to the message conveyed in Quentin Massys’s painting of the money changer, which was a reminder of the importance of piety in a world filled with sin.

term to know

Northern Renaissance

An age of artistic and cultural discovery and Christian humanism that took place in Germany, the Netherlands, and France.

1. Period and Location: Albrecht Dürer and Printmaking

The invention of the printing press led to innovations in printmaking and the proliferation of this form of artwork beginning in 15th-century Europe. The period that you will be looking at today is from 1491 to 1523.

Albrecht Dürer originated from the city of Nuremberg in the Holy Roman Empire (shaded in purple), now the modern-day country of Germany.

2. Printmaking and the Influence of the Printing Press

Printmaking was made possible by arguably the most important invention of the modern era: the printing press with movable type, invented by Johannes Gutenberg. While the printing press revolutionized the spread of information, many prints could also be made without the use of the press or moveable type.

Although movable type had been invented by the Chinese during the Song dynasty (960–1279) centuries earlier, the adaptation of wine and olive oil presses into printing presses using movable type was Gutenberg’s contribution.

Gutenberg eventually perfected the design of his invention, an invention that wouldn’t have been possible without the development of oil-based inks and the availability of paper from China. This single invention was a catalyst in countless areas of human development and was integral in the development of the Renaissance and the spread of literacy and ideas throughout Europe and beyond.

3. Printing Processes: Relief Printing and Intaglio Printing

The processes for relief and intaglio printing are similar but have essentially one fundamental difference.

In relief printing, such as block printing, a raised image is carved out of a block of something, usually wood, which would be called a woodcut. Ink is applied to the surface, and the block is then pressed onto a piece of paper, identical to the way in which a rubber stamp works. Think of this process as the opposite of drawing in that the artist carves away the negative space.

In intaglio printing, which includes the processes of engraving and etching, an image is scratched into a zinc or copper plate, with a sharp, pointed tool called a burin (see image below).

Ink is then placed on top and is poured into the recesses of the plate. Paper is moistened so that it is flexible enough to be pressed into all the little recesses, then is pressed onto the plate. Some prints are manually transferred from the plate to the paper, but others are run through the printing press to add additional pressure.

terms to know

Relief Printing

A technique used in printmaking where a print is made from the raised images on a surface; includes woodcuts, embossing, and letterpress. In relief printings, the artist carves away the negative space and leaves the positive space as a raised surface on the plate.

Woodcut

A relief printmaking process where a raised image is carved out of a block of wood, removing parts of the wood. The carved raised part of the wood is covered with ink and pressed onto a surface such as a piece of paper or fabric, transferring the image.

Intaglio Printing

A technique used in printmaking where an image is cut into the surface of a copper or zinc plate with a special tool called a burin. This technique is commonly seen in the form of engravings or etchings.

Engraving

An important process in Renaissance printmaking that flourished with the invention of accessible paper and the printing press, where a design is cut into a flat surface with a tool called a burin.

Etching

This printmaking process involves covering a metal plate with wax, then carving with the burin through the wax. The plate is then placed in an acid bath to allow the acid to eat away the exposed lines. The resulting visual effect is a print that has hazier areas than seen in an engraving or woodcut.

4. Comparing Relief and Intaglio Printing: Precursors of Albrecht Dürer

Albrecht Dürer, a master artist in both methods of printing, began his career under the tutelage of illustrator Michael Wolgemut in his hometown of Nuremberg. It’s under Wolgemut’s instruction that Dürer refined his skill in the areas of woodcutting. Dürer was also influenced, though, by the artist Martin Schongauer’s work in etching and therefore became a master in both areas. How do you tell the difference between the two types of prints? The trick is to look at the areas of shadow on the prints. In woodcut prints such as this image of the “View of the City of Nuremberg” page from The Nuremberg Chronicle, there are no areas with true halftones, or shades of gray, because of the thickness of the lines in relief printing. It looks simply black and white. The lines are generally wider and more pronounced in a woodcut relief print. Notice how in this print, everything that reads as white was carved away, and all the black lines were left raised in the block of wood.

A higher level of detail is possible in intaglio printing, in which true halftones created by the careful application of thin lines in hatching and cross-hatching are possible, resulting in the possibility of creating a more realistic sense of form and depth.

This sense of realism and depth is clearly depicted in this engraving of Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons by Martin Schongauer, in which the hellish creatures bedevil the saint into committing sin. Schongauer, like Dürer, was an accomplished painter as well. Schongauer’s prints were considered the finest examples of engravings in the period before Dürer’s success. Both applied their skills as painters and their eye for detail to the printmaking process.

terms to know

Halftones

Gradations of tone (shades of gray) between black and white.

Hatching

The use of parallel straight lines, particularly in printmaking and drawing, to indicate shadow and depth.

Cross-Hatching

The use of lines that cross over, particularly in printmaking and drawing, to indicate shadow and depth.

5. Albrecht Dürer and His Work

Although known primarily for his work in printmaking, Albrecht Dürer was an extremely talented artist, as evident in this painting and self-portrait below.

did you know

Dürer is regarded by many to be the greatest artist of the Northern Renaissance. He is often compared to Leonard da Vinci as the quintessential Renaissance man of the North. In his self-portrait from 1500, at the age of 29, Dürer shows himself in a way that represents Christ. Whereas Leonardo also created self-portraits, Dürer’s bold connection to Christ was a departure from similar images by Leonardo.

One of the most enticing aspects of printmaking was the ability to sell numerous prints. The work of art itself was the plate or block that the image was carved into; however, every printing made from the master carving (or matrix) was considered an original. Dürer took full advantage of this and made a very comfortable living selling multiple prints of his work.

did you know

When Dürer died in 1528, his estate was estimated to have been worth around one-and-a-half million dollars.

try it

Look at the following four examples of prints by Dürer to compare and contrast the formal elements of relief and intaglio prints.

This first image is the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. It is a woodcut, or relief printing, from Dürer’s book on the apocalypse, which is a collection of 14 woodcuts depicting scenes from the Book of Revelation, the final book of the Bible. It was the first book published that was entirely produced by an artist.

Although quite detailed, notice the absence of halftones, or shades of gray—it’s either black or white. This is a consequence of relief printing. The resulting lines are thicker and hold more ink, which in turn creates a darker print. Also notice the signature initials of Dürer located on the bottom of the print—the letter “D” set within a capital “A.”

did you know

Dürer signed most of his works with the “D” beneath the capital “A,” as you can see in the image above. His monogram became very valuable and was often counterfeited. Dürer even took one forger to court, resulting in one of the first copyright cases in art history. The second image is this engraving of Knight, Death, and the Devil, where one can see the effects that the finer details and resulting halftones have on the overall image. A sense of depth and form is much more clearly and realistically conveyed, for instance, in the musculature of the horse and in the shadows of the foreground. It’s an impressive and masterful example.

hint

Remember, every single line of this print is the result of the artist scraping away material meticulously on the plate of metal.

Dürer’s Knight, Death, and the Devil is an allegory of the virtuous life. The knight represents the Christian ideal, unperturbed by the threats of death and the temptations of the devil, steadfastly continuing on his righteous path. The detailed, intricate design of the engraving reflects Dürer's masterful skill and his ability to imbue his printmaking with profound philosophical and theological meaning.

This third image of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden demonstrates the effectiveness of halftones in depicting the musculature and definition of the human body. The scene takes place just before the fall of man. Eve is holding an apple and is being coaxed by the serpent—symbolic of the devil—into taking a bite. It’s yet another impressive example of how refined the art of printmaking had become and how the finest examples of prints could rival paintings in their ability to effectively depict depth and sense of form.

For comparison, take a look at this fourth and final image, an example of a woodcut, so that you can get a sense again of how halftones strongly affect the overall look of an image. Although the sense of depth and roundness of form are convincing here, it’s less realistic in appearance compared to the previous images of Adam and Eve and Knight, Death, and the Devil. Look carefully. The image is only black and white, and without the subtle shades of gray that convey a sense of shadow and three-dimensionality, the image essentially flattens into a two-dimensional image.

1. Period and Location: Italian Baroque

The Baroque is a style of art and architecture characterized by grand scale, movement, and dramatic effects. The artwork that you will be looking at today dates from 1623 to 1652 and is based in the Vatican City.

2. Characteristics and Historical Context

The Baroque period followed the Renaissance and Mannerism, marking a significant shift in artistic style and expression. Originating in Italy, the Baroque style quickly spread across Europe, characterized by its dramatic, emotional, and dynamic qualities.

Characteristics of Baroque Art

• Emotional Drama: Unlike the restrained and balanced compositions of Renaissance art, Baroque art is known for its intense emotional expressions.
• Dynamism and Movement: Baroque art often depicts scenes full of action and movement. This dynamism is achieved through dramatic compositions, the use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro), and the depiction of figures in mid-motion.
• Theatricality: The Baroque style is theatrical, with compositions that often appear as if they are a stage set, drawing the viewer into the scene. This sense of immediacy and involvement is a hallmark of Baroque art.

One of the Council's significant decrees was on the use of art in the church. It emphasized that art should:

• Be clear, direct, and instructive.
• Inspire piety and reinforce Roman Catholic teachings.
• Avoid any form of ambiguity or content that could be considered heretical.

think about it

Why do you think there would be noticeable differences in the artwork produced in Catholic countries versus Protestant ones? The Council of Trent's decision that the Church’s use of artwork served this important persuasive function is a complete departure from the Protestant Reformation’s prohibition on the use of art within the Church.

term to know

Baroque

A European style of architecture and art characterized by grand scale, movement, and dramatic effects, from approximately 1600 to 1750. The Baroque period is also associated with music and literature of the same era.

3. Bernini and His Artwork

Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598–1680) was an Italian sculptor and architect who played a pivotal role in defining the Baroque style. His work exemplifies the dynamism, emotional intensity, and grandeur characteristic of Baroque art. Bernini's contributions to sculpture, architecture, and urban planning made him one of the most influential artists of his time. He was even invited to France to work for King Louis XIV.

3a. David

The biblical story of David and Goliath has captivated artists for centuries, inspiring numerous interpretations. Bernini's rendition stands out as a quintessential example of Baroque art, showcasing the dynamic movement and emotional intensity characteristic of the style. Bernini's David offers a striking contrast to earlier Renaissance depictions, particularly by Michelangelo.

Bernini depicts the hero winding up to launch a stone at Goliath. It is a very dynamic scene. You feel as though you’re viewing a snapshot of the man in action. It’s an interesting contrast between the fierce determination and steady gaze of his face and head, and the sense of torsion and energy in the way the body is coiling, like a pitcher ready to throw a fastball in a baseball game.

The stylistic contrast is most apparent when Bernini’s David is compared with its Renaissance counterpart, the David by Michelangelo, shown below. In the same way that Michelangelo’s David is regarded as a masterpiece of Renaissance style, Bernini’s David is regarded as a masterpiece of the Baroque—the same story, but two very different thematic interpretations.

think about it

How are the two iconic David masterpieces different? How do they present different moments in the story?

Michelangelo’s David is rather static, posed, and tranquil in his overall appearance. However, there is an intensity in his focus, which enhances the sensation of restrained emotion. Compare the two sculptures side by side, below. Even the geometry of Michelangelo’s David is an application of the Renaissance ideal. The pyramid, or triangle, that is a hallmark of the Renaissance style, can be seen in his contrapposto-style pose and reinforces this feeling of stability and calm.

Bernini, in Baroque fashion, coils his David around a sharp diagonal, which creates a sense of movement and tension. This is further enhanced by the way the drapery around David appears to shift and slip away from his body, reminiscent of examples of Hellenistic sculpture from Greece that use a similar technique.

While Michelangelo’s use of contrapposto creates stability, Bernini’s David breaks free of it. If Michelangelo’s David is the calm before the storm, Bernini's David is clearly the storm itself.

3b. Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

The Baroque embodies emotion, drama, and dynamism. Bernini’s sculpture depicting Saint Teresa in ecstasy, from the Cornaro Chapel at the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome, clearly articulates the Catholic Church’s view that depictions of intense spiritual experiences were important devotional and persuasive functions of artwork.

According to the story, Saint Teresa’s conversion took place during a bout of intense visions that followed the death of her father, in which she felt a pain in her heart that she attributed to a fire-tipped arrow repeatedly thrust in her by an angel. The experience could be described as delightfully agonizing, and Bernini depicts these conflicting sensations brilliantly. Again, Bernini uses a sharp diagonal as his primary axis for the swooning saint, whose clothes appear to billow upwards as she falls in ecstasy into a cloud.

The angel is at the apex of its arrow-thrusting motion, about to lunge forward with its golden arrow and pierce the heart of Teresa again. It’s through powerful visualizations such as this that the Catholic Church felt a connection could be made between the devout on earth and the heavenly realm that transcended it.

The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa overall captures the emotional and spiritual intensity of a divine encounter. Through its dramatic composition, use of light, and intricate detail, the sculpture exemplifies the Baroque style and its emphasis on engaging the viewer's senses and emotions. As a product of the Counter-Reformation, it also reflects the Roman Catholic Church's aim to use art as a means of inspiring faith.

1. Period and Location: Italian Baroque Architecture

Baroque architecture in Italy, much like Baroque sculpture and painting, is characterized by grandeur, drama, and movement. It developed as a reaction against the restrained and orderly aesthetic of Renaissance architecture, aiming instead to evoke emotional responses through bold, dynamic designs.

The sculpture and architecture that you will be looking at today dates from between 1606 and 1667 and comes from Rome, Italy.

2. Examples of Baroque Architecture

2a. Façade of the New St. Peter’s Basilica

The architectural design and construction of St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City is a remarkable tale of ambition, collaboration, and lofty expectations. Spanning more than a century and involving numerous architects and artists, the project stands as a testament to the grandeur and complexity of Baroque architecture.

The construction of the new St. Peter’s Basilica began in 1506 under Pope Julius II, with Donato Bramante as the chief architect. Pope Julius II is the same patron who sponsored the redesign of the Sistine Chapel ceiling and Raphael’s frescoes in the papal apartments.

As noted in Tutorial 1.1.6, Bramante's design featured a Greek cross plan, symbolizing perfect symmetry and balance. After Bramante’s death, several architects took over, but it was Michelangelo who designed the iconic dome, though it was completed after his death. By the early 17th century, Carlo Maderno was tasked with extending the nave to form a Latin cross plan and to design the façade, completing it in 1614.

While the façade is undeniably impressive with its grand scale and classical elements, it has been criticized for not living up to the technical expectations set by the rest of the basilica. Such challenges with the façade can likely be attributed to its “design by committee” approach. Maderno’s original design was further altered by various influences and decisions, leading to a final version that deviated from his initial vision.

Notice the addition of the two bell towers on either end, which stretched out the front of the façade, removing the verticality that was articulated in the earlier design. Catholic officials desired to lengthen the nave of the church, which forced Michelangelo’s gorgeous dome even further back. You can see in this example how the dome is barely visible from the front, much less the drum that it rests upon.

The Piazza San Pietro, or St. Peter’s Square, is a magnificent example of Baroque architecture and urban planning. Designed by Bernini between 1656 and 1667, the square is celebrated for its grandeur, harmonious proportions, and symbolic significance. Located in front of the façade of St. Peter’s Basilica, it serves as a monumental entrance to one of the most iconic religious sites in the world.

The piazza is designed in the shape of an ellipse, creating a welcoming embrace that symbolizes the arms of the Church reaching out to the faithful. This shape is both visually striking and functional, accommodating large gatherings of people.

did you know

The center obelisk is, in fact, an ancient Egyptian obelisk repurposed as a form of Christian symbolism. It represents the connection between heaven and earth, just as it did in the religion of ancient Egypt.

term to know

Piazza

A central square in an Italian town or city.

2b. Baldacchino of St. Peter’s Basilica

Bernini’s talents were remarkable, and aside from his architectural endeavors, it was his skill as a sculptor that is most widely recognized. The baldacchino of St. Peter’s Basilica is a breathtaking example of Baroque sculpture that marks the location of the central altar of the church as well as the tomb of Saint Peter beneath it.

The baldacchino is thought to be constructed using bronze repurposed from the Pantheon in Rome, a testament to Bernini’s ingenuity and resourcefulness. This recycling of materials, or spolia, connects the ancient Roman past with the Christian present. The design features elaborate Baroque elements, including twisted Solomonic columns, ornate decorations, and dynamic forms. These columns are said to resemble the original columns of the Temple of Solomon, adding a layer of biblical symbolism.

did you know

The baldacchino is a towering 94 feet tall, or about the height of a 10-story building. Just the marble bases for each spiraling bronze column are taller than the average Vatican visitor. The estimated weight of the structure is 63 tons.

Overall, Bernini’s baldacchino was meant to symbolize the triumph of the Church, an important symbol after the Counter-Reformation, and serves as a bridge of space between the vast architectural scale of the church’s interior and that of the humble viewer below.

terms to know

Baldacchino

A permanent ornamental canopy that is either supported by columns or hanging over an altar.

Spolia

Recyling materials from ancient buildings to be used in new construction or as decorative elements on existing buildings.

2c. Façade of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

Francesco Borromini was considered one of the leading Baroque architects of his time. The façade of the Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane is one of his most well-known works and marks a departure from the flat Renaissance and classically inspired façades of the Renaissance.

Embodying the qualities of drama and dynamism essential to the Baroque design, Borromini created a curving and rippling exterior in his façade. It resembles the undulation of a wave, as if the façade were inhaling and exhaling, causing the banner of inscription above the Corinthian-style columns to seemingly flap as if in a breeze. This movement is extended to all the elements of the façade and genuinely blurs the line between architecture and sculpture.

term to know

Façade

A façade is the front part of the building or the building’s “face,” which is often the most defining vantage point of the structure.

1. Period and Location: Italian Baroque Painting: Caravaggio and His Followers

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571–1610) had a profound effect on the course of Western art. His paintings exemplify the hallmarks of Baroque art: dramatic chiaroscuro, intense realism, emotional depth, and tenebrism. This innovative approach transformed religious and secular subjects, making them immediate and relatable. Through masterpieces like The Calling of Saint Matthew and The Conversion of Saint Paul, Caravaggio not only left an indelible mark on the art world of his time but also established a legacy that continues to influence and inspire artists and viewers alike.

The artwork that you will be looking at today comes from 1600 to 1640 and focuses geographically on Milan, now in modern-day Italy, where Caravaggio was born.

2. Caravaggio: The Artist and His Style

If the stories are true, Caravaggio was a veritable “bad boy” of the artistic world. He was reportedly known as much for his temper, bad mood, and disdain for the classical artists that preceded him as he was for his artistic genius. Evidently, he was prone to fighting and trashing his apartment in Milan, Italy.

did you know

Supposedly, Caravaggio killed a man and had a death warrant issued for him by the pope. Much of what we now know of Caravaggio’s life is from court transcripts and records.

Despite his temperament, his influence and talent were unquestionable, particularly his use of light and perspective to enhance the drama of his work, giving it a theatrical quality that was entirely unique at the time. Caravaggio’s career was short-lived, its greatest years extending only from 1600 until his mysterious death in 1610 at the age of 38. He was an intense figure who burned out quickly. But he was deeply influential to a number of artists who came after him, whom art historians have dubbed the Caravaggisti.

term to know

Caravaggisti

Artists who paint in the style of the painter Caravaggio.

3. Caravaggio’s Painting: Masterpieces of the Baroque

Caravaggio's The Calling of Saint Matthew is a prime example of the artist's unique style and innovative approach to painting. This work showcases Caravaggio's mastery of light and shadow, and his ability to create a dramatic narrative.

Unlike traditional religious paintings that depicted biblical scenes in anachronistic or idealized settings, Caravaggio placed The Calling of Saint Matthew in a contemporary Italian inn. This decision makes the scene more familiar and relatable to viewers of his time. He eliminates the barrier between the New Testament narrative and the viewer, bringing us into the tavern, as if we are at an adjacent table.

Additionally, the figures in the painting are dressed in the attire of Caravaggio's era, enhancing the sense of realism. The artist's attention to detail is evident in the textures of the fabrics, the play of light on different surfaces, and the dramatic portrayal of the characters' expressions. The figures even have dirt under their nails, signaling a cue that the artist was known for using his friends as models.

Christ is the figure on the far right, hidden in the shadows, pointing at the figure of Levi, the tax collector, who became Matthew. Levi, in the same instant, is pointing to himself in seeming disbelief. Christ’s gesture is reminiscent of the depiction of Adam’s gesture in Michelangelo’s ceiling fresco in the Sistine Chapel. Caravaggio's use of chiaroscuro here is a defining feature of The Calling of Saint Matthew. A beam of light enters the room from an unseen source, illuminating the faces of Jesus and Matthew while casting the rest of the scene in shadow. This technique not only highlights the central figures but also adds a sense of mystery and drama. The light serves as a metaphor for divine intervention. It guides the viewer's eye to the moment of Matthew's calling, emphasizing the spiritual significance of the event.

The lighting also comes from a window on the right-hand side of the room, as if from above. Scholars have dubbed this naturalistic lighting technique as cellar lighting because it is reminiscent of being in a basement.

think about it

Notice again how the dress is modern for its time. This may not seem overly controversial, but consider a religious scene painted today with characters dressed in clothes that are modern.

The use of chiaroscuro is clearly evident, but Caravaggio’s innovation of using a single source of light to illuminate Levi—thereby lending a theatrical or stagelike quality to his art—is one of the most notable qualities of his work. This technique is called tenebrism and is employed not only by Caravaggio but also by his followers, the Caravaggisti.

Caravaggio has two paintings attributed to him concerning the conversion of Saint Paul. The first, seen below, is the earlier work, by at least a year. It is often considered to be a more Mannerist than Baroque interpretation of the story. Saint Paul, covering his eyes, is just one of a collection of characters in this particular scene.

It’s difficult to tell at first glance, but the figure of Christ is being held by an angel near the top right of the scene and is creating a vision that overwhelms the figure of Saint Paul, which is why he’s covering his eyes.

The next image, also called The Conversion of Saint Paul, or The Conversion of Saint Paul on the Way to Damascus, is considered to be a much more characteristic example of Caravaggio’s work. It captures the transformative moment when Saul of Tarsus, later known as Paul, experiences a divine vision that leads to his conversion to Christianity.

The composition is centered on the figure of Paul, who lies on his back with arms outstretched, having just fallen from his horse. This creates a sense of immediacy and drama, drawing the viewer into the pivotal moment of his spiritual awakening. The scene is set against a dark, nondescript background, allowing the figures and the dramatic action to take center stage.

Caravaggio's masterful use of chiaroscuro is evident. A powerful beam of light illuminates Paul, symbolizing the divine presence and highlighting the moment of revelation. The contrast between the bright light and the surrounding darkness enhances the emotional impact. The light focuses on Paul and conveys the spiritual nature of the event. It represents the blinding light from heaven that struck Paul and led to his conversion.

Paul's expression and body language convey a mix of astonishment, fear, and awe. His open arms and upturned face indicate his human vulnerability. The inclusion of the horse, depicted in a calm and indifferent manner, contrasts with Paul's dramatic fall. This juxtaposition emphasizes the personal magnitude of Paul's divine encounter.

Overall, The Conversion of Saint Paul captures the precise moment of Paul's transformation from persecutor of Christians to a devout follower of Christ. This moment is depicted with great depth, highlighting the power of divine intervention.

Caravaggio’s The Entombment of Christ, shown below, again makes use of a low horizon, pulling the viewer in and forcing the action to take place in the foreground.

hint

Notice how the subjects are aged, worn-looking, rough, dirty-looking, and in some cases, quite homely. This is another hallmark of Caravaggio.

There are no idealizations of his subjects. They agonize and struggle with the weight of the body of Christ (see close-up below), which is interestingly devoid of any signs of trauma and about to be set on the stone slab in front of the viewer. Caravaggio uses emotion, lighting, and the theatrical depiction of his subjects to generate an emotional connection, rather than the gruesome depiction of a tortured body.

terms to know

Tenebrism

A style or method of painting characterized by large areas of dark colors and a ray of light. This technique is an extreme form of chiaroscuro where portions of the painting become entirely black.

Cellar Lighting

The technique pioneered by Caravaggio of illuminating a space as if in a cellar.

4. Artists Who Followed in the Style of Caravaggio—the Caravaggisti

4a. Artemisia Gentileschi

Artemisia Gentileschi (1593–1653) was a pioneering Italian Baroque painter and one of the most talented followers of Caravaggio, known as the Caravaggisti. Her work is notable not only for its artistic excellence but also for her remarkable achievements as a woman in a male-dominated art world. Gentileschi’s powerful and emotive paintings, often featuring strong female protagonists, have secured her place as one of the most important artists of her time.

did you know

Gentileschi was the first woman to become a member of Florence’s Academy of Fine Arts. Gentileschi likely gained access to this prestigious group because her father Orazio was also a painter. Women in those days were often limited from artistic academies and training, even when they demonstrated exceptional talent.

Her painting of Judith Beheading Holofernes is typical of her desire to paint subjects with strong female characters. It’s a particularly graphic and gruesome rendition of the biblical story. Judith was a beautiful Jewish widow who seduced the Babylonian general Holofernes of the invading Babylonian army and beheaded him while he was drunk, taking his head back to her people as a means of rallying the Hebrews to victory.

The influence of Caravaggio is undeniable, particularly in the use of a low horizon pushing the action to the foreground as well as the use of a single light source to illuminate the scene. This is inspired, undoubtedly, by the treatment of the same subject matter by Caravaggio himself in his painting from 1599, shown below.

Gentileschi faced significant challenges in her personal life, including the trauma of being raped by her mentor, Agostino Tassi. The subsequent trial was a public scandal, but Gentileschi persisted in her career, channeling her experiences into her art.

Despite the obstacles, Artemisia achieved considerable success. She received commissions from prominent patrons, including the Medici family and King Charles I of England. Her ability to navigate and succeed in the art world of her time is a testament to her resilience and talent.

think about it

How do Caravaggio and Gentileschi show this scene of Judith and Holofernes differently? Consider the depictions of Judith and the maidservants. How do they physically differ from one another, and how might those stylistic choices reflect the backgrounds of the painters?

4b. Georges de La Tour

Georges de La Tour (1593–1652) was a French Baroque painter known for his masterful use of chiaroscuro, a technique he adapted from Caravaggio. However, de La Tour's approach was distinctive. Unlike Caravaggio's often theatrical and dramatic compositions, de La Tour's works convey an intimate, contemplative atmosphere by revealing the light source within the scene.

In this example, called Magdalen With the Smoking Flame, the viewer stands in the shadows and watches as a single candle illuminates the contemplative young Mary Magdalene. The candle is the focal point, casting a warm, flickering light that softly illuminates the Magdalene’s face and the objects around her. The visible flame and the gentle shadows it creates enhance the sense of quiet contemplation. The Magdalene holds a skull, a traditional symbol of vanitas that reflects on the transience of life and the inevitability of death. This element connects de La Tour’s work to the still life traditions of Flanders, which often included symbols of mortality and the passage of time.

Overall, the mood of Magdalen With the Smoking Flame is one of introspection and serenity. The intimate lighting and the contemplative pose of Magdalene invite viewers to share in her moment of reflection.

Like many artists of his time, de La Tour’s work was not widely recognized until centuries later. Today, his paintings are celebrated for their masterful use of light and their contemplative, serene quality.

think about it

How would you interpret Mary’s contemplative state in this painting? Do you think it depicts Mary before her repentance and acceptance of Christ? Or perhaps Mary following his crucifixion? It’s impossible to know for sure, but it is certainly a moving and touching scene that utilizes Caravaggio’s tenebrism to emphasize self-reflection, rather than overt emotion.

terms to know

Vanitas

A type of painting associated with still life painting that contains symbols of death, such as a skull or rotting food.

Still Life

A work of art that depicts inanimate objects.

1. Period and Location: Ceiling Frescoes

The frescoes that you will be looking at today date from between 1597 to 1694, covering almost 100 years, and focus geographically on Italy.

2. Ceiling Frescoes: Creating Awe and Wonder

Ceiling frescoes represent a fascinating subcategory of mural painting, distinguished not by their technique but by their unique spatial challenges and visual impact. Artists leverage the expansive surfaces of ceilings to create awe-inspiring scenes that often seem to defy gravity, transforming architectural spaces into realms of myth, religion, and grandeur.

2a. Annibale Carracci

Annibale Carracci (1560–1609) was a pioneering Italian Baroque painter known for his mastery in various painting techniques, including quadro riportato. This technique, which translates to “transported painting,” involves creating ceiling frescoes that resemble framed easel paintings. Notice the illusion of the frames around each painting, as if they are each separate artworks rather than one large cohesive narrative.

Carracci's use of quadro riportato is most famously exemplified in his work The Loves of the Gods, painted on the ceiling of the Galleria Farnese in the Palazzo Farnese, Rome. Despite the separation of scenes by frames, Carracci's careful arrangement and thematic consistency ensure that the overall composition remains harmonious and coherent.

The fresco series is a visual celebration of mythological narratives, focusing on the romantic and often tumultuous relationships between gods and mortals. This thematic choice allowed Carracci to explore a wide range of emotions and interactions, from tender affection to passionate embrace.

Couples such as Perseus and Andromeda are reproduced below. Here, Perseus can be seen on Pegasus, ready to turn the Kraken to stone with Medusa’s severed head.

Another significant scene features Jupiter, the king of the gods, and his wife Juno in a moment of divine splendor, reflecting the power dynamics and romantic tensions between the divine couple.

This final example is the triumphant central image of The Loves of the Gods fresco series. The scene depicts the joyous procession of Bacchus, the god of wine, and Ariadne, his mortal lover, surrounded by a lively entourage of satyrs and nymphs.

Carracci’s style recalls Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel frescoes as well as the colors of Titian. His use of illusionism or perspective to creative three-dimensional space—in particular the painted frames that set the images apart from each other—is indicative of a stylistic element that was pervasive in the ceiling frescoes of the 17th century.

Carracci's project was a collaborative effort, involving his brother Agostino and cousin Ludovico, both accomplished painters. This family workshop approach was typical of the Carracci studio and contributed to the cohesive execution of the frescoes.

terms to know

Quadro Riportato

A technique where ceiling frescoes are designed to look like framed paintings mounted on the ceiling. This method gives the illusion that individual paintings have been transported and placed on the ceiling, complete with simulated frames and borders.

Illusionism

The use of perspective in painting to create the impression of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface; or a philosophy that promotes the material world as an illusion.

2b. Guido Reni

Guido Reni trained in the same Bologna art academy as Carracci. In a fashion similar to his contemporary’s work, Guido’s Aurora is surrounded by a very convincing, albeit painted, frame. It depicts Aurora leading Dawn (in the chariot) and his entourage across the sky, bringing forth a new day.

This artist shows influence from classical Roman triumphal processions as well as from Renaissance masters, such as Raphael, in his depiction of forms.

2c. Pietro da Cortona

Guido Reni (1575–1642) trained at the same Bolognese art academy as Annibale Carracci. Known for his classical approach and graceful style, Reni’s works often depict mythological and religious themes with a sense of elegance and clarity.

No stranger to elaborate depictions glorifying his family, Pope Urban VIII commissioned the ceiling fresco seen below by the artist Pietro da Cortona as a way of commemorating his family and ensuring their legacy in the hearts and minds of the people. It’s an amazing example of the di sotto in sù (literally translated means “from below, upward”) technique in which the ceiling appears to be blown through the roof, revealing Divine Providence with the halo, directing Immortality, who is placing a crown of stars that symbolize eternal life on the Barberini family.

The personifications of Hope, Charity, and Faith hold a wreath that encircles three bees, the symbol of the Barberini family, in the center. This symbol can also be seen on the St. Peter’s Basilica baldacchino by Bernini—also commissioned by Pope Urban VIII.

term to know

Di Sotto in Sù

Literally translated means “from below, upward,” a specific approach used in painting Italian ceiling frescoes that depicts an illusionistic scene taking place above the viewer.

2d. Giovanni Battista Gaulli

Giovanni Battista Gaulli (1639–1709), also known as Baciccio, was an Italian Baroque painter renowned for his dramatic ceiling frescoes. One of his most celebrated works is the Triumph of the Name of Jesus, located in the Church of the Gesù in Rome. This fresco is a quintessential example of Baroque art's ability to convey religious fervor and divine splendor, reflecting the Catholic Church’s Counter-Reformation ideals.

The artistry exhibited is remarkable. The painting is so well integrated with the architecture that it’s nearly impossible to discern what is real and what is painted. It is an excellent example of an architectural trick of the eye, or trompe l’oeil, also known as quadratura.

The fresco depicts the glorification of the name of Jesus (IHS), surrounded by heavenly hosts and divine light. It is an allegory of the triumph of the Catholic faith and the divine grace it bestows upon the faithful. Yet it is almost invisible because of the backdrop of blinding light from heaven, a stark contrast with the dark shadow of sinners falling back to earth.

terms to know

Allegory

A symbolic narrative; a representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning through material forms.

Trompe l’Oeil

Translated to “trick of the eye”, this is an artistic technique that creates an optical illusion, usually of a three-dimensional space on a flat surface.

Quadratura

A form of illusionistic mural painting where architectural features are painted onto walls or ceilings so that they appear to extend the real architecture of the room into an imaginary space beyond the confines of the actual wall or ceiling.

2e. Andrea Pozzo

Andrea Pozzo (1642–1709) was an Italian Jesuit brother, painter, and architect known for his mastery of illusionistic ceiling painting. His fresco Glorification of Saint Ignatius stands as a testament to Pozzo's genius in blending art, architecture, and theology.

Glorification of Saint Ignatius is located in the Church of Sant'Ignazio, the Roman church dedicated to Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit order. The fresco depicts the apotheosis of Saint Ignatius, showing him ascending to heaven and being welcomed by Christ. Surrounding him are allegorical figures representing the four continents—Asia, Africa, Europe, and America—symbolizing the global reach of the Jesuit missions.

Pozzo extends the architecture of the church through painting, creating the impression of tremendous verticality that opens upward towards heaven, in the figure of Christ with Saint Ignatius rising toward his savior.

Again, it’s nearly impossible to tell where the real architecture ends and the painting begins, creating a truly awe-inspiring sensation and tremendously spiritual moment for the pious observer below.

Here’s another view of the quadratura-rendered architecture extending and creating a sense of verticality:

Through his expert use of trompe l’oeil and quadratura, Pozzo created a fresco that not only captivates the viewer with its visual brilliance but also conveys a powerful religious message. The fresco stands as a testament to Pozzo’s artistic genius and his contribution to the Baroque period’s artistic and religious heritage.

1. Period and Location: Baroque in the Netherlands and Flanders

The artwork that you will be looking at today dates from between 1610 and 1638 and focuses geographically on the Netherlands and Flanders—specifically Antwerp—in Northern Europe. Flanders no longer exists but consists of portions of modern-day Belgium and northwest France.

2. Peter Paul Rubens: Historical Context and Stylistic Characteristics

It’s important to remember that the low countries of the Netherlands and Flanders were under Spanish control during this period. Eventually, the Netherlands broke free and established the Protestant Dutch Republic, while Flanders remained Catholic and under Spanish control. The artist Peter Paul Rubens, a Catholic, would have felt the Protestant influence that existed at that time.

Rubens was born 1577 in what is now modern-day Germany but worked predominantly in Antwerp, Flanders. He was a successful artist, art collector, diplomat, and an instructor in his own art studio.

did you know

Rubens’s style emphasized the robustness and vitality of the human body. His female figures are famous for being voluptuous and full-figured. The adjective “Rubenesque” was even created to describe this body type.

His style is defined by his dramatic use of form, construction along a diagonal, foreshortening, and his interest in classical sculpture, which was influenced by a trip to Italy—a trip that many Northern artists made in their lifetimes. The use of allegory and a full-figured depiction of the female body are also hallmarks of his style.

terms to know

Rubenesque

Referring to the figures portrayed by the painter Rubens, usually depicting plump or full-figured women.

Foreshortening

The method in drawing where represented objects are reduced in size and are not parallel to the picture plane in order to convey an illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface.

Allegory

A symbolic narrative; a representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning through material forms.

3. Peter Paul Rubens: Exemplary Works of Baroque Art

3a. Elevation of the Cross

This first example, Elevation of the Cross, is the central panel of a triptych from Antwerp Cathedral. It’s a depiction of Christ in physical anguish being lifted upwards, already nailed to the cross.

The influence of Italian sculpture and understanding of anatomy is apparent in the muscular figure straining to pull the heavy cross upwards. The strenuous effort is wonderfully portrayed—it’s palpable. Two figures in the lower right are pulling on ropes attached to the cross and struggle with the weight, as another muscular figure—the bald man in the center—pulls the cross upwards from underneath. They are next to an image of an armored man pushing the cross forward and across from a man in red who pulls on the actual body of Christ in an effort to raise him up.

The entire composition takes place along a strong diagonal, which creates the sensation of movement and adds to the visual dynamism of the painting.

think about it

Compare Rubens’s Elevation of the Cross to Renaissance artworks of a similar subject. For example, Masaccio’s Holy Trinity fresco from 1427–1428 presents a static, nearly symmetrical composition with a focus on linear perspective and classical architectural elements. How else do these two works differ?

term to know

Dynamism

The illusion of movement in a composition.

3b. Arrival of Marie de Medici at Marseilles

The next example, depicting the arrival of Marie de Medici, is an interesting contrast between the composure of the widowed queen of France and the excited dynamism of the mythical sea figures, who rejoice at her safe arrival. The spectacular nature of the Baroque was favored by the aristocracy, and Marie de Medici herself commissioned this painting as a tribute to her life and legacy.

Marie is shown disembarking her ship in France from Italy amidst the pomp and circumstance of her arrival. She is betrothed to King Henry IV of France.

Three nude women are notable at the bottom, in particular, for their full-figured and fleshy appearance, which is a trademark feature of Rubens. The inclusion of mythological figures adds a sense of grandeur and divine approval to the queen's journey.

3c. The Allegory of the Outbreak of War

This last example, Rubens’s painting The Allegory of the Outbreak of War, provides an excellent example of Baroque painting, which you can compare and contrast with one of the quintessential examples of Renaissance paintings, that of The School of Athens by Raphael.

First, start with Raphael’s painting, shown below. It is clearly organized. It’s parallel to the picture plane, within a rational space, created with linear perspective. It’s considered one of the best examples of the Renaissance style. The figures aren’t moving very much; although Aristotle and Plato are moving forward, and there’s some implied movement or motion within the individual groups, it doesn’t really appear that much is going to change in the next few moments.

Now, contrast this with Rubens’s The Allegory of the Outbreak of War, shown below, which depicts rapid movement and change. You are seeing a snapshot of activity as it's happening—a rush of people along a diagonal, out of the painting and into the viewer’s space. If this was actually happening, the viewer would need to stand clear, as it’s implied that they are coming out of the picture plane itself. The lack of linear perspective and clearly defined space, and the use of foreshortening to define the space, help to enhance the sensation of movement, chaos, and panic.

Whereas Renaissance artists worked to hide the signs of their painting, Rubens makes them a part of the painting, in a painterly style that features less distinct edges and more visible brush strokes. It’s an example of Rubens’s defining style, featuring dynamism, drama, and lack of linear perspective, contrasting with the Renaissance style of composure, stability, and application of rational scientific principles, such as linear perspective.

terms to know

Picture Plane

The invisible plane that corresponds to the surface of the painting; the picture plane is like a window opening out onto another world.

Painterly

A style of painting that emphasizes the brushstroke and action of applying paint to the surface.

1. Period and Location: Dutch Landscape and Still Life Painting

The artwork that you will be looking at today covers the time period from 1635 to 1700 and focuses geographically on Flanders and the Netherlands, in Northern Europe.

2. Establishment of the Dutch Republic

The establishment of the Protestant Dutch Republic—which is now the Netherlands—was influenced by the oppression of the Protestants by the Catholic Spanish government that previously ruled this area.

Following victories over Spain, the establishment of an autonomous republic occurred without much resistance, largely because feudalism never existed in this region. Feudalism was a widespread social system in Europe, in which nobles, or aristocrats, owned or controlled the land that the common people worked. There was no highly developed aristocratic class in this region to overthrow as there was in places like France and England.

think about it

Why do you think that feudalism never took hold in this region? The primary reason is the swampy nature of the land itself. There were no large tracts of livable land to hold, so the land was essentially broken up into smaller pieces owned by families.

As drainage technology improved, more and more land could be reclaimed for use as arable and livable land. The Dutch were, in a literal, physical sense, constructing their own country.

term to know

Dutch Republic

Consisting of the Low Countries, which today are the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg and formerly under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire.

3. The Dutch Golden Age: Influences on Art

The Dutch Golden Age, spanning the 17th century, was a period of immense cultural and artistic flourishing in the Netherlands. Several factors contributed to the unique characteristics of Dutch art during this time, setting it apart from the Baroque art in other parts of Europe.

Increase in Prosperity

• The Dutch Republic experienced significant economic growth due to its dominance in trade, finance, and maritime power. This increase in prosperity led to a burgeoning middle class with disposable income.

• With more wealth, a broader segment of the population could afford to commission and purchase art. This democratization of art patronage meant that artists no longer relied solely on the church or aristocracy for commissions.

• The increase in artistic patronage led to a diversification in the subjects of artworks. There was a notable rise in portraits, landscapes, genre scenes (depicting everyday life), and still life paintings.

• Calvinism strongly influenced Dutch attitudes towards art. Calvinist beliefs discouraged ostentatious displays of wealth and religious imagery, which were seen as potentially idolatrous.

• Dutch paintings were generally smaller in size compared to the grandiose works of Italian Baroque art. This modest scale suited the domestic interiors of the middle-class homes where these artworks were often displayed.
• The subject matter of Dutch Golden Age art was humbler and more grounded in everyday life. Common themes included domestic interiors, still life works with moralistic overtones, and serene landscapes.

• A significant category of Dutch art was portraiture, which celebrated individual and civic pride. Group portraits, such as those of civic guards and guild members, were particularly popular and demonstrated the importance of community and civic responsibility.
• The Dutch landscape itself became a popular subject. Landscape painting depicted the Dutch countryside, seascapes, and cityscapes, emphasizing the beauty and uniqueness of their reclaimed land and maritime prowess.
• Still life and genre paintings often contained elements of national pride. Still life subjects showcased the abundance and variety of Dutch trade goods, while genre paintings depicted the virtues and daily activities of Dutch citizens, reinforcing a sense of collective identity and moral values.

terms to know

Dutch Golden Age

A period of the late 16th through 17th centuries when the Dutch achieved a high level of economic, political, and cultural success.

Still Life Painting

A work of art that depicts inanimate objects.

Calvinism

A branch of Protestant Christianity started by John Calvin in the late 16th century, which emphasizes complete dependence on God for salvation, the equality of all members of the congregation, and the sinful nature of human beings.

Portraiture

An artistic likeness of an individual.

Landscape Painting

A composition that uses the theme of natural scenery usually seen from one single point of view.

Genre Painting

Images in any various media that represent scenes or events from everyday life, such as domestic settings, interiors, parties, inn scenes, or street scenes.

4. Dutch Landscape Paintings

This strong sense of nationalism and pride among the Dutch, and their close connection to the land, can be seen reflected in the landscape paintings of the time. This painting, called A Distant View of Dordrecht, is an example of the type of symbolism that is present in Dutch landscape paintings. The importance of the dairy industry in the Dutch Republic is represented by the milkmaid and cows depicted in the foreground. The artist shows a genuine appreciation and understanding of the Dutch landscape.

Note that this isn't an idyllic or invented landscape like you would expect to see in Italian paintings. This is a deliberately real and particular place. The church in the background is an actual church and would have been known to people familiar with this area.

The next example, Jacob van Ruisdael's View of Haarlem From the Dunes at Overveen, is another example of a Dutch landscape that strives for accuracy in its depiction of an actual place. Although the upper portion of the image below is cropped to expand the lower details for the viewer, this image is dominated by a luminous sky with billowing clouds and a gorgeous landscape with tiny buildings and people. Such painting emphasizes the beauty and uniqueness of the Dutch and their reclaimed land.

The people in the foreground are stretching linen cloth, another important industry for the Dutch. This is an example of the pride of Dutch painters in their homeland, and the idea that accurate depictions of realistic details were a way of celebrating Dutch identity in their new republic. The workers in the field also emphasize the Protestant focus on diligent labor.

5. Still Life Painting in the Dutch Golden Age: Realism and Allegory

Dutch still life paintings are celebrated for their incredibly detailed and realistic depictions of everyday objects. Artists paid close attention to the textures, reflections, and subtleties of light and shadow, creating lifelike representations that showcased their technical skill.

In fact, at first glance, from a distance, this painting could easily be mistaken for a photograph.

Many still life paintings depicted scenes of abundance and luxury, showcasing the prosperity of the Dutch Republic. These works often featured lavish displays of food, fine glassware, exotic fruits, and imported goods, reflecting the wealth and success of Dutch trade and commerce.

Yet despite the celebration of wealth, still life paintings frequently included vanitas symbols—objects that reminded viewers of the fleeting nature of life and the certainty of death. These could include:

• Skulls: Direct reminders of mortality.
• Wilting flowers: Symbols of the transience of beauty and life.
• Hourglasses and watches: Representations of the passage of time.
• Butterflies and other short-lived insects: Reminders of our limited life spans.
• Decaying fruit: Indicators of decay and the inevitable end of all things.

hint

Reminders of humility and warnings about indulging in excess were strong Calvinist ideas.

Allegorical examples in this painting include the cup half-filled and the cup tipped over, the inclusion of seafood (specifically oysters), and a peeled lemon, reminders that life is fleeting and, like seafood and lemons, beautiful to behold but bitter and sour to taste.

This next still life, Late Ming Ginger Jar by Willem Kalf, is a wonderful example of the artist's skill in depicting details and material textures, particularly in the lustrous porcelain of the Ming vase and the silkiness of the Indian rug. Not only are they beautifully rendered, but they're also an indication of civic pride through the remarkable exposure to India and East Asia that the flourishing Dutch shipping and trading companies were facilitating.

Also notice that the peeled lemon, the watch, and the peach, which is a delicate fruit and quick to spoil, are strong examples of vanitas objects associated with mortality.

The final painting is a flower still life by the artist Rachel Ruysch. It too is an example of vanitas, in the brevity of life remaining in the freshly cut blossoms, but it is also a carefully composed example of anatomical study.

did you know

Ruysch's eye for detail and realism in botanical painting likely came from her father's profession as a botanist and an anatomy professor.

The painting appears realistic despite that at this time, it was impossible to have so many different types of flowers blooming at the same time. The diagonally composed flowers are balanced by the diagonal table. Ruysch's eye for floral paintings like this was well known and respected, helping her achieve considerable fame as an artist.

term to know

Vanitas

A type of painting associated with still life painting that contains symbols of death, such as a skull or rotting food.

1. Period and Location: Dutch Portraiture

The artwork that you will be looking at today dates from between 1630 and 1670. Today’s artwork focuses geographically on the Netherlands, in particular Amsterdam and Haarlem.

did you know

Haarlem, in the Netherlands, is the namesake of Harlem on Manhattan Island in New York, despite the different spelling.

2. Dutch Portraiture: Influences

During the Dutch Golden Age, the expansion of wealth led to an increased demand for portraits. Unlike many other European regions, the Netherlands did not have a dominant aristocracy. Instead, a burgeoning middle class, including merchants, traders, and civic leaders, sought to have their likenesses immortalized. This shift meant that artists had a broader range of subjects, from various social strata, enabling them to experiment with different poses, expressions, and settings that might not have been possible if they were restricted to aristocratic patronage.

Portraiture formed part of a more generalized Baroque interest in explorations of emotion and verisimilitude, specifically in capturing the likeness and personality of the person or people in the portrait.

terms to know

Portraiture

An artistic likeness of an individual.

Verisimilitude

Having the appearance or likeness of truth.

3. Dutch Portraiture: Examples

3a. Frans Hals

Frans Hals's Archers of Saint Hadrian is a masterful group portrait that successfully captures the individual personalities of each subject, along with aspects of their professions. Painted during a time of strong nationalism following the liberation from Spain, this work reflects the popularity of civic organizations within the Dutch Republic.

The composition of the portrait diverges from earlier, more rigid groupings, showcasing a dynamic and energetic arrangement. Members of the group appear as if they have momentarily paused to acknowledge the viewer's presence, each portrayed with unique personal details and thoughtfully arranged in relation to one another. This technique creates a lively scene full of movement and interaction.

think about it

How do you think the stances of the varying group members differ from one another? Which elements might be examples of verisimilitude? Consider that some individuals are shown looking at the viewer, while others are looking at each other. Some are reserved, and some are more animated. Though spontaneous in appearance, this was the result of careful planning. Hals successfully weaves these different elements together to create a cohesive and balanced collection of individual portraits in a group setting.

Compared to the vibrancy of the last painting, Hals’s painting of the women regents, below, is a much more composed and arranged painting, reflecting the rigid discipline and puritanical character of respected Calvinist women. It’s also a great example of the Calvinist influence of humility. The women are shown seated, as full-length portraits were considered too grandiose. The individualism remains, however, as each member of the painting can stand independently of the others.

The palette is more subdued than with the Archers. The women are wearing dark clothing—another sign of humility—so the artist isn’t able to emphasize the details in the clothing, as would have been possible with royal portraits. It’s a notable shift from the exquisite detail of material textures that Northern European artists were renowned for.

3b. Judith Leyster

Judith Leyster, known for the informal and approachable nature of her paintings, exhibits a similar spontaneous quality in her self-portrait. In this work, Leyster appears to have been caught in the act of painting, casually leaning back and greeting the viewer with a warm smile. This approachability and informality were groundbreaking, offering a more personal glimpse into the artist's world.

did you know

Her fancy clothing is indicative of her success as a painter. It’s unlikely that she painted in formal attire, which would be comparable to you painting in a formal suit or evening gown.

Leyster masterfully uses lighting to create a realistic impression of skin on her face. There is a very subtle sheen noticeable on her cheek, forehead, and the side of her nose. She also uses color to help differentiate herself, dressed in dark colors, from the lightly colored subject being painted. In addition, this subject almost appears to be playfully mimicking the artist’s gesture with the bow on his violin, just as her brush hovers above her painter’s palette.

3c. Rembrandt

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, commonly known as Rembrandt, is widely regarded as the most important painter to emerge from 17th-century Amsterdam, showcased his skill in creating effective and dynamic group portraits in The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp. This portrait, commissioned by the local Surgeon's Guild of Amsterdam, is an excellent example of Rembrandt's ability to integrate multiple figures into a cohesive and engaging composition.

The influence of Caravaggio is evident in the use of tenebrism, a technique that uses stark contrasts between light and dark to highlight the cadaver, bringing a dramatic focus to the scene. Rembrandt’s composition and use of light create a sense of depth and immediacy, drawing the viewer into the anatomical study.

The physicians that surround Dr. Tulp crowd around the head of the cadaver. Many of the physicians are noticeably straining to get a better view. As in Hals’s painting, you get the sense that you have walked in on a lesson, with two of the figures in the back making eye contact with you.

did you know

Dr. Tulp was an actual person. He was the head of the Surgeon's Guild of Amsterdam.

The composition is arranged around the diagonal of the cadaver, forming the diagonal axis. The anatomy professor and physician Dr. Tulp flexes his left hand to help demonstrate the function of the muscles and tendons that he carefully lifts up with his forceps.

Originally darkened by layers of dirt, grime, and varnish, The Night Watch earned its nickname due to the perceived nighttime setting. After restoration, however, the painting revealed much brighter and vibrant colors. This group portrait, considered one of the greatest to emerge from the Dutch Republic, depicts a scene of bustling activity as two officers, a captain in a red sash and a lieutenant in a pale-yellow uniform, lead their men through preparations for a parade.

This is another example of a civic group commissioning a group portrait, just as the Archers did from Frans Hals years earlier. Rembrandt masterfully uses chiaroscuro and light to both illuminate the most important figures in the front, and to direct the viewer back into the painting by focusing on the little girl. In a clever nod to this group of musketeers, Rembrandt shows the loading, preparation for firing, and actual firing of a musket, shown below.

did you know

Notice any unusual figures among this militia? The little girl in the golden dress is illuminated on the left side of the image, balancing the lieutenant in a similar shade of yellow. Oddly, she wears a chicken tied to her waistband. At the time, the “golden claw” was a symbol of the military company, and art historians believe she is an allegory for the entire group.

Rembrandt produced many self-portraits. This particular example shows the Italian influence and stylistic characteristics he absorbed from his teacher who studied in Rome. It’s an example of the balanced composition and naturalism favored by Italian artists, as well as an example of the tenebrist technique and influence of Caravaggio. It further recalls the use of chiaroscuro and sfumato that was employed by Leonardo da Vinci in his famous portrait of the Mona Lisa.

Rembrandt presents himself with a solemn and contemplative expression, capturing the weight of his personal experiences and the challenges he faced later in life. The portrait is characterized by its realistic depiction and emotional depth, showcasing Rembrandt's mastery of capturing human emotion and verisimilitude.

Painted during a difficult period in Rembrandt’s life, this self-portrait reflects his personal struggles, including financial troubles and the loss of loved ones. Despite these hardships, Rembrandt continued to create powerful works of art, demonstrating his resilience and dedication to his craft. It stands as a testament to his introspective nature and his ability to convey profound human experiences through his art.

did you know

In this particular portrait, compared to others that he did of himself at this time, some perceive a sense of humility. In fact, Rembrandt had recently declared bankruptcy and lost his wife, Saskia van Uylenburgh, to tuberculosis, which influenced the more subdued nature of the painting. He’s poised, but there’s no hint of vanity; he isn’t projecting any characterization other than that of a painter.

1. Period and Location: Dutch Genre Painting

Dutch genre paintings contain strong symbolism integrated within scenes of everyday life. The artwork that you will be looking at today dates from between 1660 to 1675 with a geographical focus on the Netherlands, in particular, the city of Amsterdam

term to know

Genre Painting

Images in any various media that represent scenes or events from everyday life, such as domestic settings, interiors, parties, inn scenes, or street scenes.

2. Camera Obscura

Latin for “dark room,” the camera obscura was the precursor to the camera as we know it today. It was essentially a closed box with a pinhole that let in light. The light could be reflected onto a surface, reproducing the image of a particular area. It used a mirror to reflect light onto a surface but used the pinhole to concentrate on a particular area, similar to how a camera aperture allows in a fixed amount of light from one direction.

Artists could use this device as a way of accurately reproducing an image, sometimes tracing it and then painting it. The English painter David Hockney argues that Jan Vermeer, one of the artists covered today, used a camera obscura to assist in the painting of his interiors. Hockney cited evidence such as halo effects in Vermeer’s paintings, thought to be the result of using a camera obscura, and minute details that he wouldn’t have noticed if he was painting from afar yet would have detected using a camera obscura. Therefore, Hockney argues, Vermeer was using this device to help him depict more realistic effects of light and color.

This possibility doesn’t take away from Vermeer’s incredible artistic skill as one of the premier painters of the Dutch Republic.

term to know

Camera Obscura

From the Latin for “dark room,” this was an early device with a hole in one end of an enclosed box or room that projects an image of its surroundings onto a flat screen or surface.

3. Symbolism in Dutch Genre Painting: Examples

3a. Jan Vermeer

Vermeer was an extraordinarily talented Dutch artist and is renowned for his masterful use of light and his ability to create realistic paintings that often border on the photographic in their precision. Vermeer's works are celebrated for their intricate detail and the luminous quality he brings to interior scenes, effectively capturing the atmosphere and realism of the Dutch landscape but within an indoor setting.

did you know

You may be most familiar with Vermeer’s work because of the movie called The Girl With a Pearl Earring, based on the novel of the same name, which references one of his most famous paintings, shown below.

Vermeer’s genre paintings often carry rich symbolic meaning, reflecting the social, cultural, and moral values of 17th-century Dutch society. His use of everyday scenes and objects imbued with deeper significance allows viewers to explore the underlying messages in his works. For example, Vermeer’s painting The Letter is composed in a way that makes it appear as if you’re hiding outside the room, a voyeur peering out onto a private moment as it unfolds. The woman playing the lute, a symbol of love, receives a letter from a servant. The use of the lute and the peaceful painting of a calm sea behind the woman suggests that it’s a love letter, perhaps someone away at sea aboard a merchant ship.

This painting is an example of Vermeer’s skill in color reproduction and understanding of realistic shadow as well as his possible use of a camera obscura. The camera would have helped him in depicting realistic color, light, and shadow. It’s a masterful example of Vermeer’s type of genre painting, with people in quiet, domestic settings.

think about it

How does Vermeer’s representation of women differ from other images of women from earlier eras? Consider their setting, attire, and activities. Vermeer’s female subjects are neither goddesses nor queens, nor Mother Mary. They appear to be contemplative and engaged with their surroundings in an unusual way for this time.

Next, Vermeer’s The Allegory of Painting, also known as The Art of Painting or The Artist in His Studio, holds significant importance in the context of art history through intricate details, thematic depth, and technical brilliance.

The painting is often interpreted as an allegory of the artist’s role in society. The figure of the artist is painting a model, who represents Clio, the muse of history, holding a trumpet and a book, which symbolize fame and the recording of history.

The Allegory of Painting also has a fascinating provenance (history of ownership), having passed through various hands, including being in the possession of the Nazi leader Hermann Göring during World War II. Its recovery and restoration to rightful ownership add even more layers to its theme of historical narrative.

did you know

This artwork and another Vermeer painting were discovered deep in an Austrian salt mine in 1945, after the Nazis attempted to hide their plundered artworks. The discovery of these works is featured in the book and film called The Monuments Men.

3b. Jan Steen

Jan Steen's painting The Feast of Saint Nicholas is a vivid and lively depiction of a traditional Dutch celebration of the feast day of Saint Nicholas (Sinterklaas), which occurs on December 5th. This painting is a prime example of Steen’s genre works, known for their humor, detailed observation of everyday life, and moral undertones.

The little girl in front with a doll runs from her mother, appearing to not want to share. The boy on the left is crying for apparently receiving—according to historians—a birch rod, being held by the impish little boy in the middle of the picture, who’s mocking and pointing at the older boy.

Notice how the house is rather disorganized and chaotic, compared to the organization and cleanliness of the Dutch home depicted in Vermeer’s paintings. Another important point to note is the subject matter; although the focus is on the children, the painting functions as a satire of adult selfishness and jealousy.

The Feast of Saint Nicholas is significant for its detailed and lively portrayal of a traditional Dutch celebration, its rich narrative and emotional depth, its moral and symbolic elements, and its reflection of 17th-century Dutch culture and society. The painting remains a beloved work, appreciated for its humor, technical skill, and insightful commentary on human nature.

term to know

Satire

The use of sarcasm, ridicule emphasizing weakness more than the weak person, denouncing vice and folly and implying moral judgment.

1. Period and Location: The Baroque Period in England

The architecture in the lesson is from the Baroque period in England, spanning from the late 16th to the early 18th century, was marked by significant developments in architecture and urban planning, transforming London into a modern city.

2. The Great Fire of London (1666)

The Baroque period in England, spanning from the late 16th to the early 18th century, marked a significant chapter in architectural history. This era was noted for the extensive rebuilding of London after the Great Fire of 1666. Central to this monumental task was Sir Christopher Wren, an architect whose designs and influence profoundly shaped the city's new architectural landscape.

The Great Fire began in a bakery on Pudding Lane and quickly spread through the city, fueled by wooden structures and narrow streets. It raged from September 2 to September 6; over those four days, the fire destroyed:

• More than 13,000 houses
• 87 parish churches
• Numerous public buildings, including St. Paul's Cathedral

2a. The Rebuilding of London

The fire's aftermath presented a unique opportunity to redesign the city with improved infrastructure, safety measures, and architectural innovations. Key figures in this process included Christopher Wren, John Evelyn, and other prominent planners and architects.

Both Christopher Wren and John Evelyn proposed plans aimed at creating a more orderly, fire-resistant, and aesthetically pleasing city. It was the hope of Christopher Wren to rebuild London as a beautiful modern city in the same way as Florence and Rome during the Renaissance.

Christopher Wren’s plan for the redesign of London included the following:

• Radial Streets: Wren proposed a series of wide, straight streets radiating from central points, improving traffic flow and access.
• Public Squares: The plan included numerous public squares to serve as firebreaks and social spaces.
• Monumental Buildings: Wren strongly advocated for new grand public buildings and churches, symbolizing London’s renewal.

John Evelyn’s plan for the rebuilding of London included the following:

• Grid System: Evelyn suggested a grid system of streets and avenues, inspired by classical and Renaissance urban design principles.
• River Embankment: His plan featured a wide embankment along the Thames to prevent future flooding and fires.
• Green Spaces: Evelyn called for the integration of green spaces and public gardens to enhance the urban environment to improve the lives of London residents.

2b. London’s Rebuilding Effort

The final urban plan incorporated the following:

• Streets were widened to prevent the rapid spread of future fires and improve traffic circulation.
• New regulations mandated the use of brick and stone instead of wood for construction.
• Standardized building heights were introduced to create a more harmonious urban landscape and reduce the risk of catastrophic fires
• The fire necessitated an improved water supply system; thus, efforts were made to enhance the city’s water infrastructure to support firefighting and improved sanitation.

2c. The Legacy of London’s Rebuilding Effort

The urban planning and rebuilding efforts following the Great Fire of London had a lasting influence on the city’s development:

• The reconstruction laid the foundation for a more modern and resilient city, setting standards for urban planning and building regulations nationwide.
• The Baroque architecture introduced during this period, particularly Wren’s churches and public buildings, continues to define London’s architectural heritage.
• The principles of wider streets, public squares, and fire-resistant construction influenced future urban planning in London that continues today.

did you know

Christopher Wren and John Evelyn’s revitalization plan for London, bringing it into the modern age, will later be the inspiration for the rebuilding and modernization of Paris between 1853 and 1870 by Georges-Eugène Haussmann.

3. Christopher Wren’s Architectural Legacy

Christopher Wren was born in 1632 in Wiltshire, England. Initially trained as a mathematician, Wren's transition to architecture began in the 1660s. His mathematical background influenced his architectural approach, emphasizing precision, innovation, and proportion.

Wren's architectural style embodies Baroque principals through its grandeur and monumentality, including large-scale imposing facades and grand interiors. His use of curves, domes, and elaborate ornamentation creates a sense of movement and drama. Finally, Wren’s strategic placement of windows and the interplay of light and shadow enhances the visual complexity of his designs.

3a. St. Paul’s Cathedral

The crown jewel of Wren's career, St. Paul's Cathedral, stands as a masterpiece of Baroque architecture. Completed in 1697, the cathedral features a magnificent dome and a harmonious blend of classical and Baroque elements. The dome is one of the largest in the world at a height of 366 feet, and it has become a dominant feature on the London skyline.

St. Paul's Cathedral became a symbol of resilience and renewal, representing London's rebirth after the Great Fire. Its grand scale and intricate design set new and enduring standards for ecclesiastical architecture in England for centuries to come.

did you know

Christopher Wren, a devout Protestant, was one of the first people to be buried in the rebuilt cathedral. On his tomb is the inscription “Si monumentum requiris circumspice,” which is Latin for “if you wish to see his monument, look around you.”